Overview^[1]

William Caxton (c. 1422 – c. 1491) was a pivotal figure in the history of English printing and literature. He is renowned for introducing the printing press to England, significantly influencing the spread of literature and the standardisation of the English language.

Probably born in Kent, England, Caxton spent much of his early career after his apprenticeship in Bruges, the Netherlands, which was a major centre for the wool trade and, subsequently, for printing in Europe. It was in Bruges and Cologne that he learned the art of printing. In 1476, he returned to England and established his own printing press at Westminster, London.

Image: Caxton showing the first specimen of his printing to King Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth (Consort) at the Almonry, Westminster (painting by Daniel Maclise). Attribution: Daniel Maclise, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caxton_Showing_the_First_Specimen_of_His_Printing_to_King_Edward_IV_at_the_Almonry,_Westminster.jpg

Caxton’s contributions to English literature and printing were profound:

• Printing Innovations: By establishing the first printing press in England, Caxton revolutionised the production of books, making them more accessible to a broader audience. This contributed to an increase in literacy and the spread of knowledge.
• Standardisation of English: Caxton’s printed works played a key role in standardising the English language. He had to choose specific dialects and spellings for the texts he printed, which helped to unify and standardise English.
• Literary Impact: He printed over 100 titles, including literature, religious works, and histories. Notably, he produced the first printed editions of “The Canterbury Tales” by Geoffrey Chaucer and “Le Morte d’Arthur” by Sir Thomas Malory, both cornerstone works of English literature.
• Translation and Composition: In addition to his printing work, Caxton translated several books from French to English, contributing directly to English literature.

William Caxton’s legacy is that of a pioneer who not only introduced printing to England but also significantly contributed to the cultural and linguistic development of the country. His work paved the way for the future of publishing and literature in the English-speaking world, making him a foundational figure in the history of book printing.

The Dawn of Printing: A Global Perspective
But, before we look at William Caxton’s story, let’s go back in time.

Long before William Caxton introduced the printing press to England, the art of printing had been evolving across the globe. The journey of printing technology began as early as 3000 BC with the civilisations of proto-Elamite and Sumer, who used cylinder seals to certify documents on clay tablets. This era marked the inception of various methods to reproduce symbols and patterns, including block seals, hammered coinage, pottery imprints, and cloth printing.

Initially, printing served to embellish textiles, particularly silk, with intricate designs. However, the scope of printing expanded significantly with the advent of woodblock printing for texts on paper in China by the 7th century during the Tang dynasty. This innovation paved the way for mass book production, significantly impacting literacy and knowledge dissemination across Asia. The practice flourished, spreading to Korea and Japan and fostered a rich tradition of woodblock printing throughout the region.

A landmark in the history of printing is the Chinese Buddhist Diamond Sutra^[2], dated 11^th May 868, recognised as the earliest known printed book bearing a precise publication date. This milestone exemplifies the advanced state of printing in China and its importance in spreading Buddhist scripture.

The invention of movable type by the Chinese artesan Bi Sheng during the Song dynasty in the 11^th century marked another pivotal moment in printing technology. Although movable type saw limited use in China compared to woodblock printing, its invention was a significant leap forward, enabling more efficient book production. The technology eventually made its way outside of China, with Korea taking a leading role in its adoption. The Jikji, printed in Korea in 1377 during the Goryeo dynasty, stands as the oldest known book printed with metal movable type, showcasing the spread and evolution of printing technology before it took root in Europe.

These early developments laid the groundwork for a revolution in the dissemination of knowledge, setting the stage for Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in Germany and, later, William Caxton’s pioneering efforts in England. Caxton’s introduction of the printing press not only transformed the English literary landscape but also connected England to a rich global history of printing innovation.

The William Caxton Story
This paper is about William Caxton, known to be a printer in the 15^th century. He was sufficiently accomplished that he was named one of the greatest Britons in a BBC poll in 2002^[3], but there is a lack of verifiable information available about him – for example, his exact date of birth is not known.

William Caxton is believed to have been born sometime between 1415 and 1422. It seems likely that he was born in the Weald of Kent, England, in either the village of Hadlow or Tenterden. The specific location is not definitively documented.

There is limited and mostly no information about his parents, including their names or occupations, as records from that period are scarce. However, it is generally thought that he came from a relatively prosperous family since they were able to afford to apprentice him to a London merchant, which set the stage for his later career in the merchant trade and eventually as a printer and publisher. Wikipedia^[4] says that a possible candidate for William’s father is Thomas Caxton of Tenterden, Kent, who was like William, a mercer^[5]. He was one of the defendants in a case in the Court of Common Pleas^[6] in Easter term 1420: ‘Kent. John Okman, versus “Thomas Kaxton, of Tentyrden, mercer”, and Joan who was the wife of Thomas Ive, executors of Thomas Ive, for the return of two bonds (scripta obligatoria) which they unjustly retain.’

Image capturing the moment William Caxton introduced the Gutenberg printing press to England.
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, February 2024.

There is no specific information available about William Caxton’s education. Given the era and Caxton’s background, it is possible that his initial education was local and modest, focusing on basic literacy and numeracy suitable for a merchant’s apprentice. The real breadth of his education likely came from his apprenticeship and subsequent travels, which exposed him to the merchant trade, the emerging technology of printing, and various literary works that he would later translate and print.

Similarly, there is little to no information about William Caxton having siblings. Historical records from the 15^th century, especially those concerning personal details of non-royalty or non-nobility, are often sparse or non-existent. Caxton’s prominence in history is primarily due to his work in printing rather than detailed accounts of his family life.

The lack of specific details about Caxton’s education and family does not diminish the significance of his achievements. Instead, it highlights the impact he made through his introduction of the printing press to England and his role in the production of the first printed books in English, which marks a pivotal moment in the history of publishing, literature, and the dissemination of knowledge.

Caxton’s Work
William Caxton’s apprenticeship to Robert Large in 1438 was a significant step in his early career. Robert Large was a prominent London merchant and the Mayor of London in 1439. Through this apprenticeship, Caxton would have been learning the trade of a merchant, which included skills in trade, finance, and possibly basic literacy and numeracy as they applied to business. Apprenticeships during this period were comprehensive and designed to prepare individuals thoroughly for their future careers in trade or craft.

William Caxton’s apprenticeship under Robert Large could indeed be likened to a form of an early MBA, especially considering the broad range of skills and knowledge he would have acquired. Like an MBA, his apprenticeship would have covered various aspects of business management, trade, finance, and possibly even some elements of leadership and networking within the context of 15^th century mercantile activities.

Apprenticeships during Caxton’s time were comprehensive, hands-on learning experiences that prepared individuals for successful careers in their chosen fields. They combined practical work experience with learning under the guidance of a master craftsman or, in Caxton’s case, a merchant. This provided a solid foundation in the practicalities of running a business, managing trade and financial transactions, and understanding the market, which are all core elements of modern MBA programs.

Learning
During his apprenticeship, Caxton would have been learning various aspects of the mercantile trade. This included understanding the buying, selling, and trading of goods, both domestically and internationally. He would also learn about the logistics of shipping, trade laws, and the financial aspects of running a merchant business. This period would have provided him with a solid foundation in the principles of commerce, which were crucial for his later ventures.

End of the Apprenticeship
Apprenticeships during the 15^th century typically lasted for several years. Although the exact date Caxton’s apprenticeship ended is not documented, it is generally believed that apprenticeships could last around seven years or more. This would place the end of his apprenticeship around the mid-1440s, assuming it began in 1438.

Moving to Bruges
After completing his apprenticeship, Caxton moved to Bruges, which was one of the most important trading centres in Europe at the time. His work involved the export of English wool and the import of finished goods. Bruges was also a significant cultural and intellectual centre, which likely exposed Caxton to the latest developments in printing technology. Bruges was where Caxton’s interest in printing and literature began to flourish. He became involved in translating works into English and eventually learned the printing trade. By 1476, Caxton returned to England and established the first printing press in Westminster, marking the beginning of his career as a printer and publisher.

Caxton’s time in Bruges was crucial for his development, not just as a merchant but as a figure pivotal to the introduction of the printing press in England. His work in Bruges allowed him to build the necessary connections, skills, and knowledge that would later enable him to become England’s first printer and publisher, significantly impacting the dissemination of knowledge and literature in the English language.

The environment in which Caxton worked post-apprenticeship, particularly his time in Bruges, would have furthered his education in international trade, cultural exchange, and the burgeoning technology of printing and publishing. His shift from being a merchant to becoming involved in printing and publishing demonstrates an early form of entrepreneurial pivot, leveraging his skills and experiences to venture into new, innovative areas—much like what is encouraged in modern business education.

Why Bruges?
William Caxton was attracted to Bruges for several reasons, many of which were tied to the city’s status as a major commercial and cultural hub in the 15^th century. Bruges was one of the most important centres of trade in Europe at that time, offering significant opportunities for merchants and businessmen due to its strategic location and its role as a focal point for the trading networks that spanned across the continent:

• Commercial Opportunities: Bruges was at the heart of the flourishing trade between the Hanseatic League’s ports in the Baltic and the rest of Europe. It served as a critical node in the trade of goods such as wool, cloth, and luxury items from the East. For a merchant like Caxton, the city offered ample opportunities to engage in trade, expand his business networks, and gain exposure to a wide variety of goods and trading practices from across Europe.
• Cultural and Intellectual Climate: Besides its commercial significance, Bruges was also a cultural and intellectual centre. The city’s wealth and cosmopolitan population supported a vibrant arts scene, including the production of illuminated manuscripts and, later on, the adoption of the printing press. This environment likely stimulated Caxton’s interest in literature and printing. Bruges was where Caxton was first exposed to the printed book, which had a profound impact on his career path.
• English Merchant Community: Bruges had a substantial English merchant community, which would have provided Caxton with a network of compatriots and a familiar cultural environment. This community was instrumental in the wool trade, England’s most important export at the time. Being part of this community facilitated Caxton’s business ventures and provided him with support and connections.
• Transition to Printing: During his time in Bruges, Caxton became involved in translating literature from French to English, notably “Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,” which is recognised as the first book printed in English. This project likely introduced him to the possibilities offered by the emerging technology of the printing press. Bruges’ vibrant intellectual climate, combined with its openness to new technologies, provided the perfect environment for Caxton to explore this new interest, which would eventually lead him to become the first English printer and publisher.

Bruges offered William Caxton a unique blend of commercial opportunity, cultural richness, and intellectual stimulation that was ideally suited to his interests and ambitions. This combination of factors played a crucial role in shaping his future career and his significant contributions to the development of printing in England.

Merchant Adventurers of London
William Caxton’s involvement with the Merchant Adventurers of London marks an interesting chapter in his career, highlighting his prominence in the trade and commercial circles of his time.

Why Caxton Became Governor
Caxton’s appointment as the Governor of the English Nation of Merchant Adventurers in Bruges reflects his significant experience and reputation in the mercantile community. The position was likely a recognition of his skills in negotiation, his understanding of international trade, and his leadership abilities. As Governor, Caxton would have been responsible for overseeing the affairs of the Merchant Adventurers in Bruges, representing their interests and possibly mediating disputes. This role underscored his standing among his peers and his capability in managing not just business matters but also the complexities of working within the international trading environment of the time.

When
William Caxton served as the Governor of the English Nation of Merchant Adventurers in Bruges around the 1460s. His tenure in this role would have coincided with his deepening interest in printing and publishing, a field into which he would later transition more fully.

Merchant Adventurers compared with London Livery Companies
The Company of Merchant Adventurers was not exactly a Livery Company in the way we think of them today, associated with specific trades or crafts within the City of London. Instead, it was an organisation of merchants involved in international trade. The Merchant Adventurers specialised in exporting cloth, especially to the Low Countries, and played a significant role in the development of English commerce overseas. While they shared some characteristics with Livery Companies, such as a structured governance and a role in regulating trade practices, their focus was more specifically on managing and facilitating international trade.

William Caxton’s tenure as Governor of the Merchant Adventurers highlights his involvement in the broader commercial activities of his era, underscoring his multifaceted career as a merchant, diplomat and, later, as a pioneering figure in the introduction of printing to England. His time in Bruges was a crucial period that bridged his mercantile career with his eventual legacy as England’s first printer and publisher. Caxton’s role in Bruges would have placed him at the heart of these commercial activities, even as he was beginning to explore the possibilities offered by the emerging technology of printing.

Becoming a Translator
William Caxton’s transition into a translator and subsequently into printing was influenced by several factors, including his environment, personal interests, and the evolving needs of the society around him.

How and Why Caxton Became a Translator
Cultural and Intellectual Environment in Bruges: While living in Bruges, Caxton was immersed in a vibrant cultural and intellectual milieu. Bruges was not only a commercial hub but also a centre for the arts and learning. This environment likely stimulated Caxton’s interest in literature and scholarly works. The city’s connections to various European trading routes also meant that it was a place where knowledge and ideas from different parts of the continent converged.

• Exposure to Printed Books: It was during his time in the Low Countries that Caxton was first exposed to the emerging technology of the printing press. Johannes Gutenberg^[7] had invented movable type printing in Mainz, Germany, around 1440/1450, and the new technology was slowly spreading across Europe. The availability of printed books would have made literature more accessible and possibly inspired Caxton to contribute to this burgeoning field.
• Translation: Caxton’s foray into translation is closely tied to his work on “Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,” the first book he is known to have translated. This work, a collection of stories about the Trojan War, was translated from French to English. Caxton undertook this project around 1468-1471, motivated by the desire to make such stories available to an English-speaking audience, particularly the nobility and other members of the court who were interested in chivalric tales but may not have been fluent in French.
• Personal Interest and Market Demand: Caxton’s decision to become a translator was likely driven by a combination of personal interest in literature and a recognition of the market demand for books in English. As literacy rates began to rise and the English middle class grew, there was an increasing appetite for literary and religious works in the vernacular language.
• Pathway to Printing: Caxton’s work as a translator set the stage for his later role as a printer and publisher. Recognising the potential for printed books to reach a wider audience, Caxton learned about the printing trade, eventually establishing the first printing press in England in 1476. His translation works, starting with “Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,” became some of the first books to be printed in English, marking the beginning of English literature’s transition from manuscript to print.

Caxton became a translator out of a mix of personal passion for literature, the cultural influences of his environment in Bruges, the emerging technology of printing, and the market’s growing demand for accessible literature. His translation work was a key step in his journey towards becoming a pivotal figure in the history of English printing and publishing.

The Westminster Printing Press
William Caxton set up the first printing press in England at Westminster, London, in or around 1476. This momentous event marked the beginning of the printed book industry in England and had a profound impact on English literature, education, and society.

Image: Printer’s mark of William Caxton, 1478. A variant of the merchant’s mark
Citation: William Caxton. (2024, February 12). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Caxton
Attribution: BabelStone, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Setting Up the Printing Press in Westminster
After spending many years in Bruges and Cologne, where he was exposed to the emerging technology of printing, Caxton returned to England. He recognised the potential for printing in his home country, particularly for producing books in English that could cater to the growing literate population and the nobility’s appetite for literature. Westminster was a strategic choice for several reasons, including its status as a religious and administrative centre, its proximity to the royal court, and its accessibility to scholars, clergy, and the burgeoning middle class.

The Time Around 1476
The latter half of the 15^th century was a period of significant change and development in England. The War of the Roses was drawing to a close, leading to a more stable political environment under the reign of Edward IV. This stability, coupled with economic growth and the rise of a more affluent and educated middle class, created an ideal market for printed books. Additionally, the Renaissance movement, which had been sweeping through Europe, was beginning to influence England, increasing interest in learning, literature, and the arts.

Equipment Used
Caxton’s printing press would have been a hand-operated wooden machine based on the design developed by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid 15^th century. The key components of the printing equipment included:

• The Press: A screw press adapted from those used in wine-making and papermaking. It was used to press the inked type against the paper or vellum.
• Movable Type: Individual letters and characters made from metal (lead, tin, and antimony alloy) that could be arranged and rearranged to form words and sentences. This innovation drastically reduced the time and cost of producing books.
• Ink: A specially formulated printing ink that was more viscous and oil-based than the ink used for writing by hand. This ink adhered better to the metal type and transferred well to the printing surface.
• Paper and Vellum: While paper was increasingly available due to its production in mills, vellum (prepared animal skin) was still used for more luxurious books.

Printed Works
Caxton’s first known printed work in England was an edition of “Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales,” which showcased the capabilities of the new technology. Over time, he printed more than 100 titles, ranging from literature and religious texts to chivalry and history, significantly contributing to the spread of knowledge and the standardisation of the English language.

Image: [Cropped] Caxton’s 1476 edition of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales
Attribution: Geoffrey Chaucer (author), William Caxton (printer), CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caxton%27s_Canterbury_Tales.jpg

Setting up the printing press in Westminster not only established Caxton as the first English printer but also revolutionised the production and dissemination of books, making literature more accessible and fostering a culture of learning and inquiry that would continue to grow in the following centuries.

Works of Note

Aesop’s Fables

• Translation: William Caxton was among the early translators of Aesop’s Fables into English, but he was not the first to translate them into a European vernacular language. Aesop’s Fables have been translated and adapted into various languages over the centuries, given their popularity and moral lessons. Caxton’s significant contribution was printing the first English version of Aesop’s Fables in 1484.
• Printing: The version Caxton printed in 1484 is notable because it was not simply a direct translation from a single source. Instead, it compiled fables from various authors, including Aesop, as well as others like Avianus and Poggio Bracciolini^[8]. This compilation approach made the collection more comprehensive and accessible to an English-speaking audience and contributed to its popularity in English literature.

Caxton’s work as a translator, printer, and publisher was instrumental in the spread of literature in England. By bringing Aesop’s Fables, along with other significant texts, to a wider audience, he played a key role in the development of English prose and the promotion of moral and educational stories during the Renaissance in England.

Image depicting William Caxton showing the first printed book to the English court. This scene captures the moment with detailed expressions of intrigue and admiration from the nobility, set within a court or grand castle room.
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, February 2024.

Canterbury Tales
Caxton played a significant role in the history of “The Canterbury Tales” by being the first to print the work around 1476, shortly after establishing the first printing press in England.

Caxton’s printing of “The Canterbury Tales” was a landmark in English literature, as it helped standardize the text and made it accessible to a much wider audience than ever before. Before the advent of printing, books had to be copied by hand, which was a time-consuming and expensive process. Caxton’s edition of Chaucer’s work allowed for its preservation and dissemination, ensuring its place as one of the cornerstones of English literature.

Caxton’s involvement with Chaucer’s work didn’t end with the initial printing. He also took an active role in editing the text, attempting to correct what he saw as errors and inconsistencies in the manuscript versions he had available. This editorial process reflects early efforts at textual standardisation in the print era, though modern scholars often look to manuscripts rather than Caxton’s printed editions when studying Chaucer’s original text.

Marriage and Children
The details of William Caxton’s personal life, including whether he was married or had any children, are scarce. Historical records from the 15^th century, especially those concerning the private lives of individuals who were not members of the nobility or royalty, are often incomplete or nonexistent. As a result, there is little concrete information available about Caxton’s family life.

Most of the available information about William Caxton focuses on his professional achievements, particularly his introduction of the printing press to England and his role in printing and translating significant works. His contributions to the development of the English language and literature, as well as his influence on the spread of printed books, are well-documented and celebrated. However, the lack of documentation regarding his personal and family life leaves historians with gaps in understanding the man behind these monumental accomplishments.

Given the focus of historical records and the priorities of documentation at the time, it is not uncommon to find that the personal lives of even prominent historical figures like Caxton remain largely a mystery.

Death
William Caxton died in 1491. While the exact date of his death is not definitively known, it is generally accepted that he passed away in March of that year. Caxton spent the latter part of his life in Westminster, London, where he had established the first printing press in England. He is believed to be buried at St. Margaret’s Church, Westminster.

St. Margaret’s, located near Westminster Abbey, was a common burial place for people of note during that period. However, the exact location of his grave within the church is not known, and there is no surviving marker or monument specifically identifying his final resting place. Over the centuries, many significant historical figures have been buried or memorialised in St. Margaret’s, making it a site of considerable historical importance in its own right.

Image: A scene showing the wooden structure of the Caxton printing press at Westminster, complete with a screw mechanism and hand wheel, in a setting illuminated by natural light. The image reflects the historic process of setting type, inking, and pressing paper, reflecting the era’s technology.
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, February 2024.

Caxton’s legacy is commemorated in various ways, including plaques, statues, and institutions named after him. A notable example is the Caxton Memorial Statue^[9] in Westminster, London. His contribution to printing is also celebrated in the annual Caxton Lecture by the Stationers’ Company in London.

Conclusion
William Caxton’s pioneering introduction of the printing press to England marks a seminal moment in the annals of literature, language, and knowledge dissemination. By selecting a diverse array of texts for printing—ranging from religious manuscripts and classical works to chivalric romances and historical chronicles—Caxton not only catered to the varied tastes of English society but also played a crucial role in shaping the canon of English literature. His efforts in printing seminal works like Geoffrey Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales” and Sir Thomas Malory’s “Le Morte d’Arthur” underscore his key role in promoting and preserving English literary heritage.

Caxton’s influence extended beyond literature; he was instrumental in standardising the English language, thereby facilitating a unified mode of communication that enriched the tapestry of modern English. This standardisation was pivotal, ensuring that literature and scholarly works became accessible to a broader audience, thus democratizing knowledge in a manner that parallels the transformative impact of today’s digital age.

But Caxton’s legacy is not confined to his advancements in printing technology; it also encompasses his foresight in recognising the power of the printed word in cultural preservation and transmission. By making pivotal literary and philosophical works widely accessible, he fostered a shared cultural heritage that has shaped the collective identity of the English-speaking world.

The introduction of the printing press by Caxton initiated a cultural revolution, laying the groundwork for the Enlightenment, the rise of literacy, and the democratisation of knowledge. His work mirrors the contemporary digital revolution in its capacity to transform how information is shared and consumed, underscoring the enduring relevance of his innovations.

Reflecting on William Caxton’s multifaceted impact, it’s evident that his legacy transcends the confines of his era. His visionary embrace of printing technology not only set the stage for the evolution of information sharing but also serves as an inspiration for future innovations. In a world continually reshaped by digital technology, Caxton’s pioneering spirit reminds us of the transformative power of new mediums in enhancing literacy, education, and cultural enrichment.

William Caxton’s enduring legacy as England’s first machine printer and a champion of the English language and literature firmly establishes him as a pivotal figure in the history of publishing and knowledge dissemination. His contributions have had a profound impact on society, shaping the English-speaking world of his time and laying the foundations for future generations to build upon. Caxton’s work exemplifies the profound influence that one individual’s innovation can have on the cultural and intellectual development of society, a legacy that continues to inspire and influence.

Sources and Further Reading

• Caxton in Focus: The Beginning of Printing in England, by Lotte Hellinga (1982), published by British Library Board, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Caxton-Focus-Beginning-Printing-England/dp/0904654761
• Caxton: The Description of Britain, by Marie Collins (Author), William Caxton (Author), Ranulf Higden (Author) (1988), published by Corner House, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Caxton-Description-Britain-Marie-Collins/dp/155584300X/
• Caxton’s Blanchardyn and Eglantine, c. 1489, by William Caxton Caxton (Author), Leon Kellner Kellner (Contributor) (2017), published by hansebooks, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Caxtons-Blanchardyn-Eglantine-c-1489/dp/3744671747/
• Caxton’s Golden Legend: 355, by Mayumi Taguchi (Editor), John Scahill (Editor), Satoko Tokunaga (Editor) (2020), published by OUP Oxford, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Caxtons-Golden-Legend-English-Original/dp/0198867964/
• Caxton’s Own Prose, by N. F. Blake (Ed.) (1973), published by André Deutsch, available from https://biblio.co.uk/book/caxtons-own-prose-caxton-william-blake/d/261201001 (Used)
• Caxton’s Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye: A Critical Edition: 11 (Court Cultures of the Middle Ages and Renaissance), by Hiroyuki Matsumoto (Editor), Sarah Alyn Stacey (Series Editor) (2024), published by Peter Lang, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Caxtons-Recuyell-Historyes-Troye-Renaissance/dp/1803742623/
• The Life and Typography of William Caxton, by William Blades (Author) (2012), published by Ulan Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Life-Typography-William-Caxton/dp/B00B4NGEPW/
• The Prologue and Epilogues of William Caxton, Ed. by W. J. B. Crotch (1999), published by Oxford University Press for the Early English Text Society, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/William-Caxton-Prologues-Epilogues-Original/dp/0859919137
• William Caxton – Men of Kent and Kentishmen, by john Hutchinson (1892), published by Cross & Jackman, availability unknown
• William Caxton and Charles Knight, by Charles Knight, with an introduction by Kenneth Day (1976), published by the Wynkyn de Worde Society, available from https://www.amazon.com/Caxton-William-Charles-Knight-Knights/dp/0853313911
• William Caxton and Early Printing in England (Spoken Word), by Lotte Hellinga (2010), published by The British Library Publishing Division, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/William-Caxton-Printing-England-Spoken/dp/0712350888/
• William Caxton: 38 (Famous People, Famous Lives), by Harriet Castor (Author), Peter Kent (Author) (2002), published by Franklin Watts Ltd., available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/William-Caxton-Famous-People-Lives/dp/074964317X/
• William Caxton: A Biography, by George D. Painter (1977), published by Putnam, currently unavailable
• William Caxton: The First English Editor, by Richard Deacon (1975), published by TBS The Book Service Ltd., available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/William-Caxton-First-English-Editor/dp/0584100221/

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End Notes and Explanations

1. Source: Compiled from my research and using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
2. Explanation: The Smithsonian Magazine notes: “Chances are you know a little something about the Gutenberg Bible, the first book made with moveable type, which came along almost 600 years later. Bibliophiles might also have a working knowledge of other famous manuscripts like the Book of Kells, The Domesday Book, and Shakespeare’s First Folio. The Diamond Sutra should be in that pantheon of revered books as well.” Source and acknowledgement: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/Five-things-to-know-about-diamond-sutra-worlds-oldest-dated-printed-book-180959052/ ↑
3. 100 Greatest Britons: In the BBC poll, William Caxton was placed at number 68, just ahead of Bobby Moore – England’s world-cup winning captain in the 1966 soccer finals. ↑
4. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Caxton#cite_ref-wayback11to100_1-0 ↑
5. Explanation: Mercery (from French mercerie, meaning “habderdashery” (goods) or “haberdashery” (a shop trading in textiles and notions) initially referred to silk, linen and fustian textiles among various other piece goods imported to England in the 12^th century. Eventually, the term evolved to refer to a merchant or trader of textile goods, especially imported textile goods, particularly in England. A merchant would be known as a mercer, and the profession as mercery. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercery ↑
6. Source: “AALT Page”, cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Caxton#cite_note-4 ↑
7. Further Information: In Germany, around 1440, Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith by trade, invented the movable-type printing press, which started the Printing Revolution. Modelled on the design of existing screw presses, a single Renaissance movable-type printing press could produce up to 3,600 pages per workday, compared to forty by hand-printing and a few by hand-copying. Gutenberg’s newly devised hand mould made possible the precise and rapid creation of metal movable type in large quantities. His two inventions, the hand mould and the movable-type printing press, together drastically reduced the cost of printing books and other documents in Europe, particularly for shorter print runs. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press ↑
8. Explanation: Aesop, Avianus, and Poggio Bracciolini were authors associated with fable literature, each contributing to the tradition in different historical contexts and from different cultural backgrounds:Aesop: Aesop is the most famous of the three, traditionally credited with a collection of fables known as Aesop’s Fables. Though little reliable information exists about his life, Aesop is supposed to have lived around the 6th century BCE, possibly in Ancient Greece. The fables attributed to him are characterized by animals and inanimate objects that speak and have human characteristics, designed to impart moral lessons. Over centuries, Aesop’s Fables have been translated and adapted countless times, influencing a wide range of cultures and continuing to be a staple of children’s literature worldwide.

   Avianus: Avianus, a writer who lived during the late Roman Empire, around the 4^th or 5^th century CE, is known for his collection of 42 Latin verse fables. This collection was a compilation and adaptation of earlier fables, some of which are traced back to Aesop, though through the lens of Roman literary and cultural contexts. Avianus’ work served as an important link in the transmission of fable literature from the ancient world to the medieval period in Europe.

   Poggio Bracciolini: Poggio Bracciolini (1380–1459) was an Italian scholar and an early humanist of the Renaissance. Though not primarily known for fables, Poggio is celebrated for his discovery and collection of ancient texts, including works of literature, philosophy, and science that had been lost to the Middle Ages. His efforts helped to fuel the Renaissance’s revival of classical learning and values. Poggio’s connection to fable literature is more indirect, related to his role in the broader rediscovery and promotion of classical texts, which included works of moral and fabulist literature.

   In summary, these three figures are linked through the genre of fables, each contributing in different ways and at different times. Aesop’s Fables form the cornerstone of this literary tradition, while Avianus and later Poggio Bracciolini played roles in its preservation, transmission, and revival, reflecting the changing tastes and intellectual currents of their respective eras. Source: ChatGPT ↑

9. Further Information: In St Margaret’s church, a memorial was erected to William Caxton in 1820 and is by the sculptor Henry Westmacott. This inscription reads: To the memory of William Caxton who first introduced into Great Britain the art of printing and who A.D. 1477 or earlier exercised that art in the Abbey of Westminster.↑