Introduction^[1]

The role and status of women in ancient Rome during its heyday (roughly from the late Republic to the early Empire, around the 1^st to the 2^nd century AD) were complex and varied significantly depending on their social class, wealth, and marital status. Roman society was fundamentally patriarchal, meaning that men held legal and social authority over women; however, women in Rome could exercise considerable influence in domestic, religious, and, to some extent, political spheres.

The role of women in ancient Rome was multifaceted, weaving through the very fabric of Roman society from the public spectacles of the Colosseum to the private chambers of a Roman domus. This paper explores the diverse roles and experiences of Roman women, shedding light on their legal status, social functions, personal lives and contributions within the grand tapestry of the Empire.

Image encapsulate the essence of Roman women’s roles and status during ancient Rome’s heyday. This scene blends elements of domestic, religious, and public life, highlighting the diverse roles and experiences of Roman women across different social classes.
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, February 2024.

Historical Context and Evolution
The status and roles of women in ancient Rome were not static but evolved significantly over time, reflecting broader changes in Roman society from the early Republic through the Empire:

• Early Republic: In the early days of the Republic, Roman society was heavily influenced by the agrarian ethos, with family and kinship ties playing a crucial role in social organisation. Women were primarily involved in domestic duties and child-rearing, with their legal rights being severely limited. The patria potestas^[2] (power of the father) law gave the male head of the household almost absolute control over his family members, including his wife, children, and slaves.
• Mid to Late Republic: As Rome expanded, encountering different cultures and accumulating wealth from its conquests, its social structure began to change. Women from the upper classes, in particular, began to enjoy greater economic independence and social visibility. The Lex Oppia^[3], a law imposed during the Second Punic War limiting women’s use of expensive goods, was repealed in 195 BC, reflecting the growing influence of women in public life and their resistance to legal constraints.
• Early Empire: The transition to the Empire marked a significant shift in women’s roles and legal status. The reign of Augustus (27 BC to 14 AD) introduced laws aimed at encouraging marriage and childbirth among the upper classes, such as the Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus^[4] and the Lex Papia Poppaea^[5], which penalised celibacy and childlessness. While these laws sought to control women’s reproductive choices, they also implicitly acknowledged the importance of women’s roles in sustaining the Roman state.
• Imperial Period: Throughout the Imperial period, women of the elite classes continued to gain visibility in social and even political spheres, as exemplified by figures like Livia Drusilla, who exerted considerable influence behind the scenes. Women could own property, run businesses, and were involved in philanthropy, sponsoring public works and games.

Time Periods Explained
The following timeframes provide a broad overview of the transitions and developments in Roman history, reflecting changes in governance, society, and the status of women throughout the Republic and Empire.

• Early Republic: The Early Republic period is generally considered to start in 509 BC, following the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, and it lasted until around the 3^rd century BC. This period is characterised by the establishment of the Roman Republic and its expansion through Italy, marked by the struggle of the plebeians for political equality with the patricians, the codification of Roman law, and the beginning of Roman conquest outside Italy.
• Mid to Late Republic: The Mid to Late Republic covers approximately the 3^rd century BC to the end of the Republic in 27 BC. This period includes Rome’s major conflicts, such as the Punic Wars^[6] against Carthage, which significantly expanded Rome’s influence in the Mediterranean. It was also marked by internal conflicts, including social and political reforms, leading to the rise of influential military leaders and the eventual decline of the Republic.
• Early Empire: The Early Empire, also known as the Principate, begins with Augustus’s consolidation of power in 27 BC and lasted until the end of the Severan Dynasty^[7] in AD 235. This period includes the Pax Romana (Roman Peace), a time of relative peace and stability across the empire, which lasted from the reign of Augustus to that of Marcus Aurelius (AD 161 – 180).
• High Empire: Often considered to span from the end of the Pax Romana around AD 180 (death of Marcus Aurelius) to the crisis of the third century (around AD 235), this era is marked by the empire reaching its maximum territorial extent and significant cultural achievements.
• Late Empire: This period begins with the crisis of the third century (around AD 235), a time of military, political, and economic instability, and goes through the eventual split of the Roman Empire into the Western and Eastern Empires in AD 285, the latter often called the Byzantine Empire. The Western Roman Empire is traditionally considered to have fallen in AD 476, with the deposition of the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, while the Eastern Empire continued until the fall of Constantinople in 1453.

The evolution of women’s roles in ancient Rome was not merely a linear progression towards greater freedom and influence. Instead, it was shaped by the complex interplay of social, economic, and political factors. For example, while elite women experienced increased autonomy and public visibility, the majority of Roman women, particularly those from lower classes, continued to live within the confines of traditional domestic roles. However, even within these constraints, women found ways to exercise agency, whether through managing household finances, participating in religious cults, or influencing their male relatives.

This historical overview highlights the importance of considering the broader socio-political context when examining the roles and status of women in ancient Rome. The changes in women’s legal rights and societal roles reflect the shifting dynamics of Roman society as it evolved from a small city-state to a vast empire.

Comparing Roman Women with their Contemporaries in other Ancient Civilisations
The status and roles of women in ancient Rome offer a fascinating case study in the diversity of gender roles and women’s rights in the ancient world. By comparing Roman women with their contemporaries in Greece, Egypt, and the Near East, we can gain better insights into the uniqueness of the Roman approach to gender roles and women’s rights.

• Ancient Greece: In ancient Greece, particularly in classical Athens, women’s roles were more restricted compared to those in Rome. Athenian women were largely confined to the domestic sphere, with limited rights in public and political life. They could not own property independently or participate in voting or holding office. Their primary roles were as wives and mothers, focused on managing the household and raising children. In contrast, Roman women, especially during the Empire, could own and manage property, engage in business, and had some legal rights in marriage and divorce. This difference illustrates a relative flexibility in Roman society regarding women’s economic roles and legal capacities.
• Ancient Egypt: Ancient Egypt presents a contrast to both Rome and Greece, with women enjoying a relatively high status and more legal rights. Egyptian women could own, manage, and inherit property outright, and they could initiate divorce. Women in Egypt, including those of the royal family, could also hold significant religious and political positions. Compared to Rome, where women’s influence was often exercised indirectly through male relatives, Egyptian women had more direct access to economic and legal autonomy.
• Near East: The status of women in the Near East varied widely among different cultures and periods, such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. In general, women’s rights in these societies were more constrained than in Rome. For example, the Code of Hammurabi in Babylon provided women with certain protections but also imposed severe punishments for adultery and allowed fathers and husbands considerable control over their daughters and wives. In contrast, Roman law provided women, particularly in the later Republic and Empire, with protections regarding property and divorce, reflecting a more nuanced approach to women’s legal status.

Far East
Comparing the status and roles of women in ancient Rome with those in the Far East, particularly in ancient China, highlights significant cultural and societal differences in gender roles, rights, and family dynamics. These differences are shaped by distinct philosophies, legal systems, and social structures:

• Ancient Rome: In ancient Rome, women’s status evolved over time, with variations based on social class, wealth, and historical periods. While Roman society was patriarchal, women in the later Republic and Empire periods could own property, engage in business, and had some rights in marriage and divorce. Elite Roman women, in particular, could wield considerable influence in social and even political spheres, albeit often indirectly through male relatives.
• Ancient China: In ancient China, particularly during the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), which is often compared to Rome due to contemporaneity and its significance in Chinese history, Confucianism^[8] played a crucial role in shaping societal norms and gender roles. Confucian philosophy emphasised hierarchical relationships and filial piety, with a strong focus on the family as the basic unit of society. Within this framework:
• Patriarchal Society: Like Rome, Chinese society was deeply patriarchal. The authority of the male head of the household was emphasised, and women were expected to be subservient to their fathers, husbands, and sons.
• Family and Marriage: Women’s roles were primarily defined within the context of the family. Marriage was crucial for forming alliances between families, and women’s primary responsibilities included managing the household and producing heirs. Unlike in Rome, where women could initiate divorce under certain conditions, Chinese women had very limited rights in this regard.
• Property Rights: In general, Chinese women had fewer property rights than Roman women. Inheritance laws favoured male heirs, and women’s ownership of property was often contingent upon their relationship with male family members.
• Public Life and Education: Participation of women in public life and their access to education were more restricted in ancient China than in Rome. Confucian teachings advocated for women’s obedience and modesty, limiting their roles outside the domestic sphere. While some Roman women, especially in elite circles, could receive education and engage in literary pursuits, such opportunities were rarer for Chinese women.
• Influence and Power: Despite these restrictions, women in both Rome and China could exercise influence within their families and, by extension, in broader social and political contexts. In China, the influence was typically more indirect, with women impacting political decisions through their roles as mothers, wives, or concubines of powerful men.

Cultural and Societal Differences
The differences between ancient Rome and China in terms of women’s roles and rights reflect broader cultural and societal distinctions. Roman law provided a legal framework that allowed women some degree of autonomy and rights, particularly in matters of property and family law. In contrast, Confucian philosophy in China emphasised rigid social hierarchies and familial roles, resulting in more restrictive norms for women’s behaviour and fewer legal rights.

However, it’s important to note that within both societies, there was a spectrum of experiences for women, influenced by factors such as class, wealth, and the specific historical period. Additionally, both societies valued family and lineage, although the ways in which women could contribute to and influence these areas differed.

Uniqueness of the Roman Approach
The Roman approach to gender roles and women’s rights is notable for its complexity and variation over time. Roman women’s lives were shaped by a combination of legal rights, societal expectations, and individual circumstances, allowing for a degree of flexibility and variation not uniformly seen in other ancient civilisations.

While Roman society was patriarchal, the legal system provided spaces for women to exert influence and autonomy, especially in matters of property and family law. Furthermore, the prominence of some women in the imperial family and their involvement in public religious roles highlight the unique ways in which Roman women could navigate the structures of power and authority.

When compared to their contemporaries in Greece, Egypt, and the Near East, Roman women occupied a distinctive place in the ancient world. Their experiences reflect the Roman legal and social system’s unique capacity to adapt and change, providing insights into the complexity of gender roles in ancient societies.

Influence of Religion and Mythology on Roman Women
Religion and mythology played pivotal roles in shaping societal views of women in ancient Rome, reflecting broader cultural values and norms. The roles of goddesses in Roman mythology and the religious practices dedicated to them offer insights into the complexities of Roman attitudes towards women, highlighting areas where women could exert societal and sometimes political influence.

Roles of Goddesses in Roman Mythology
Roman mythology was populated with a diverse array of goddesses, each embodying different aspects of life and nature, from fertility and agriculture to wisdom and warfare. Notable goddesses include:

• Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was also revered as the progenitor of the Roman people through her son Aeneas, linking her to Rome’s foundation myths.
• Minerva, part of the Capitoline Triad^[9] along with Jupiter and Juno, was worshipped as the goddess of wisdom, arts, trade, and strategy in war.
• Ceres, the goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility, and motherly relationships, had a central role in Roman religion, embodying the sustenance of life and the connection between the people and the land.
• Juno, the queen of the gods, represented aspects of womanhood such as fertility and childbirth, but also aspects of war and protection of the state.

These goddesses and their myths conveyed societal expectations and ideals for Roman women, symbolising the roles and attributes valued by Roman society, such as fertility, domesticity, wisdom, and even participation in civic life.

   
Images depicting four prominent Goddesses (from top right, clockwork: Minerva, Juno, Ceres and Venus)
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, February 2024.

Cults of Vesta and Isis
The cults of Vesta and Isis illustrate how religion provided avenues for women to exercise societal and sometimes political influence in Rome.

• Vestal Virgins: The cult of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth, home, and family, was served by the Vestal Virgins, priestesses who took vows of chastity for 30 years to devote themselves to the goddess. These women held a unique position in Roman society; they were entrusted with important religious duties, including maintaining the sacred fire of Vesta, which symbolised the continuity and security of Rome. Their role granted them privileges and protections unusual for women at the time, such as the ability to own property, make wills, and a seat of honour at public games. They could exercise a form of political influence through their intercessory powers and were integral to the religious and civic life of Rome.
• Isis: The cult of Isis, an Egyptian goddess whose worship spread throughout the Roman Empire, offered a different model of religious participation. Isis was revered as a goddess of healing, protection, and magic, embodying ideals of motherhood and fertility. Her cult was popular among women and men alike and provided women with a religious space where they could seek personal empowerment and communal engagement. The Isis festivals allowed women to participate actively in public religious ceremonies, which was otherwise restricted in many aspects of Roman religious life.

Societal and Political Influence
The involvement of women in these religious cults and practices allowed them to navigate the patriarchal structures of Roman society and exert influence in public and private spheres. While direct political power was beyond the reach of most women, those associated with powerful religious roles or cults could influence public opinion, policy, and even the actions of political leaders through their religious authority and moral standing.

Furthermore, the reverence for goddesses who embodied complex and powerful attributes challenged simplistic notions of female passivity and subordination, offering women divine models of strength, wisdom, and authority. This religious context provided a counterbalance to the male-dominated aspects of Roman society, highlighting the dualities and tensions within Roman attitudes towards women.

As you can see, Roman religion and mythology played significant roles in shaping societal views of women, offering them avenues for influence and participation in the religious and cultural life of Rome. Through the worship of goddesses and participation in religious cults, Roman women could find spaces of empowerment and assert their presence in the public and spiritual domains of Roman society.

Literary and Artistic Representations of Women in Ancient Rome
The portrayal of women in Roman literature and art offers valuable insights into Roman values and attitudes toward women, reflecting broader societal norms, ideals, and anxieties. Through the works of authors like Ovid, Virgil, and Livy, as well as various artistic representations, we can discern how Roman society viewed women, their roles, and their place within the family and the state.

Portrayals in Literature

• Ovid: Ovid’s works, particularly “The Art of Love” (Ars Amatoria) and “Metamorphoses,” offer complex depictions of women that range from goddesses and heroines to more everyday figures. In “Metamorphoses,” women are often central figures in tales of transformation, love, and power, embodying virtues and vices that reflect the moral and social concerns of Roman society. However, Ovid’s portrayal of women can also be seen as objectifying, focusing on their beauty and desirability as central to their value.
• Virgil: In the “Aeneid,” Virgil presents women in various roles, but often as figures who influence or obstruct the hero’s destiny. Dido, the queen of Carthage, embodies passionate love and tragic abandonment, highlighting themes of duty over personal desire. Conversely, Aeneas’s mother, Venus, plays a protective role, guiding and aiding her son. These portrayals underscore the tension between public duty and private emotion, a central theme in Roman culture, with women often embodying the personal and emotional realms that the male hero must navigate.
• Livy: Livy’s “History of Rome” provides insights into Roman historical narratives and the idealisation of women’s virtues. The story of Lucretia, whose suicide after being raped led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic, exemplifies the Roman ideal of female virtue and its importance to the state’s moral and political foundation. Similarly, the tale of the Sabine women, who intervened to stop a battle between their Roman husbands and Sabine fathers, highlights women as peacemakers, preserving the family and social order.

Representations of Women in Roman Art
Roman art, encompassing sculpture, frescoes, and mosaics, frequently portrayed women in a manner that both idealised their societal roles and underscored their expected virtues. In particular, Imperial period portraits meticulously showcased hairstyles and attire indicative of a woman’s societal status and inherent virtue. These visual cues were not merely aesthetic but deeply symbolic, reflecting broader societal norms and expectations regarding femininity and propriety.

The depiction of goddesses and mythological heroines in Roman art functioned on multiple levels. Beyond their religious significance, these figures acted as paradigms of ideal femininity, embodying esteemed virtues such as fertility, wisdom, and beauty. Goddesses like Venus, with her association with love and beauty, and Minerva, symbolic of wisdom and martial prowess, served as archetypical figures through which the ideals of womanhood were both communicated and celebrated. Their representations in art provided women with divine examples of the qualities valued by Roman society, reinforcing the connection between female virtue and collective welfare.

Artistic representations extended beyond the public and religious spheres, playing a crucial role in the private realm, particularly within the context of funerary art. Here, the virtues and achievements of the deceased were commemorated, offering insights into the values held by Roman families. Scenes depicting women engaged in domestic activities, such as weaving or nurturing children, not only highlighted their indispensable role within the household but also celebrated their contributions to the continuity and stability of Roman society. These images served as enduring testaments to the central role of women in maintaining the domestic sphere, an essential pillar of Roman life.

Through these artistic mediums, Roman society articulated a complex vision of womanhood that intertwined ideals of beauty, virtue, and domesticity. The portrayal of women in Roman art—whether divine, mythological, or mortal—thus reflects a nuanced interplay between individual identity, societal expectations, and cultural expression, offering a window into the values and dynamics of ancient Rome.

Implications for Roman Values and Attitudes
The literary and artistic portrayals of women in Rome reflect a society that valued traditional gender roles and virtues, such as chastity, loyalty, and familial duty, while also recognising women’s influence and potential for agency within those constraints. The idealisation of certain female figures and traits served to reinforce societal norms and expectations, but the vilification or objectification of women in some contexts also reveals underlying anxieties about female autonomy and sexuality.

These portrayals underscore the complex and sometimes contradictory views of women in Roman society. They were seen both as upholders of society’s moral values and as potential disruptors of social order, necessitating control and surveillance. Through the arts, Roman society could negotiate and articulate its ideals, fears, and values regarding women, their roles, and their place within the family and the state.

The Daily Life and Culture of Women in Ancient Rome
The daily life and cultural experiences of Roman women varied significantly across different social strata, profoundly influencing their duties, leisure activities, fashion choices, and participation in public festivals. Archaeological finds, including frescoes, domestic artefacts, and personal belongings, alongside historical texts, paint a vivid picture of women’s lives across the Roman Empire.

Image: Featuring a Roman woman in ancient Rome, in her bed chamber, surrounded by artefacts related to her daily life. The scene captures the essence of her private life, blending the colour ful artefacts and intimate setting with her dignified presence.
Drawn by DALL-E, a subset of ChatGPT, February 2024.

Variations by Social Class

• Elite Women: Women from wealthy families enjoyed lives of leisure and luxury, managing extensive households with the help of numerous slaves. This freed them to partake in cultural, religious, and social activities, reflecting their elevated status. Their homes, adorned with elaborate frescoes depicting various scenes from mythology to daily life, stood as symbols of their wealth and taste. Participation in public events and religious ceremonies was common, often assuming significant roles, including acting as patrons for the arts.
• Middle-Class Women: Those in the middle class, such as the business and equestrian classes, led more modest lives. They managed their households, contributed to family businesses, and engaged in social activities within their communities. Their involvement in public festivals was significant, though lacking the prominence of their elite counterparts.
• Lower-Class and Freed Women: Life for lower-class and freed women^[10] was marked by labour. They worked as servants in workshops, or took on agricultural tasks, with leisure moments rare and precious. Their engagement in public festivals was mainly as spectators, offering a respite from daily toils.

Leisure and Social Life
Leisure activities varied across classes but included visiting baths, weaving, reading, and socialising. Elite women could afford the time and space for intellectual pursuits and elaborate social gatherings, while lower-class women found joy in communal festivals and local events, showcasing the diversity of Roman leisure culture.

Fashion and Personal Adornment
Fashion served as a marker of social status and personal identity. Wealthy Roman women donned garments made from luxurious fabrics and adorned themselves with intricate jewellery, signalling their status and wealth. In contrast, the attire of middle and lower-class women was simpler, focusing on practicality yet adhering to Roman ideals of modesty and femininity.

Public Festivals and Religious Participation
Women’s participation in public festivals and religious ceremonies was a cornerstone of Roman cultural life. Events such as the Matronalia celebrated women and marriage, while other festivals were more inclusive, allowing women to engage in the communal religious and cultural life of Rome. The religious sphere, in particular, offered women a venue for social interaction and public visibility, albeit within the confines of established norms.

Archaeological Insights
Archaeological evidence provides a window into the daily lives of Roman women beyond the literary record. Frescoes from sites like Pompeii reveal scenes of domestic life, religious observance, and leisure activities, while personal items such as jewellery, cosmetic tools, and household utensils offer insights into the personal aesthetics and daily routines of Roman women. These artefacts underline the diversity of women’s experiences, shaped by their social status and the broader cultural and societal norms of ancient Rome.

In essence, the daily life of Roman women was a complex tapestry woven from the threads of social class, cultural norms, and individual experiences. From the opulent lives of the elite to the labour-intensive days of the lower classes, women navigated a world of both restriction and opportunity, leaving a lasting impact on the cultural and social landscape of ancient Rome.

Notable Women in Ancient Rome
Beyond the well-documented lives of Livia Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger, several other Roman women left indelible marks on their society, demonstrating the varied ways women could exert influence and wield power in a predominantly patriarchal setting. The stories of Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, and Fulvia are particularly illustrative of the significant, albeit sometimes indirect, roles women played in Roman politics, culture, and society. In the Appendix, I have profiled several women who took on important roles, some authorised but mostly unauthorised, are shown through history as being influential and memorable. Cornelia and Fulvia are also shown below:

• Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi: Cornelia Africana, the daughter of Scipio Africanus, was most celebrated as the mother of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, two of Rome’s most famous reformers. Living in the 2nd century BC, her life exemplifies how Roman women of high status could influence politics and society indirectly through their roles within the family. Cornelia was widowed young but declined numerous marriage proposals to devote herself to her sons’ education, instilling in them a sense of duty to Rome and its people.

  Cornelia’s influence on her sons was profound; both became tribunes who sought significant social and political reforms aimed at reducing wealth disparities and improving the lot of the lower classes. After their untimely deaths, Cornelia’s dignified mourning and her role as a symbol of maternal virtue and republican ideals elevated her status to that of a revered matriarch in Roman culture. Her correspondence, praised by contemporaries for its eloquence, further cemented her legacy as an exemplar of education and virtue in Roman society.

• Fulvia: Fulvia, living during the tumultuous late Republic (83 BC – 40 BC), wielded power in a more direct and confrontational manner than most Roman women of her or any time. Married successively to three of the most influential men of her era—Publius Clodius Pulcher, Gaius Scribonius Curio, and finally, Mark Antony—Fulvia was actively involved in her husbands’ political careers, using her wealth and social influence to gather support for them and against their enemies.

  Fulvia’s most notable moment came after the death of Julius Caesar when she played a pivotal role in the political turmoil that followed. She was not only a behind-the-scenes adviser but also took an active part in military actions during the Perusine War, a testament to her ambition and capabilities. Fulvia’s involvement in these conflicts demonstrates the extent to which women could engage in the political and even military affairs of Rome, albeit in exceptional circumstances.

Influence and Legacy
The lives of Cornelia and Fulvia, though vastly different in their approaches and outcomes, illustrate the complex roles women could play in Roman society. Cornelia used her status and influence to shape her sons’ legacies and promote ideals of civic virtue and reform, while Fulvia engaged directly in the political and military arenas, showing a level of ambition and agency rare for Roman women.

These stories, among others, contribute to our understanding of the nuanced roles women occupied in ancient Rome. They highlight how women, despite the constraints of a patriarchal society, found ways to influence public affairs, whether through the cultivation of their children’s careers, as in Cornelia’s case, or through direct political and military action, as with Fulvia. Their legacies underscore the potential for women to exert power and influence in even the most male-dominated societies.

Legal Documents and Inscriptions: Women’s Rights and Agency in Ancient Rome
The examination of legal documents, inscriptions, and epigraphic sources sheds light on the practical aspects of women’s rights, social status, and personal agency in ancient Rome. These sources provide concrete evidence of the roles women played and the spaces they navigated within both public and private spheres.

Wills and Property Rights
Roman women’s ability to own, inherit, and manage property is well-documented in wills and legal documents. For instance, the will of a woman named Dasumia, dating to the 2nd century AD, illustrates her autonomy in distributing her estate making significant bequests to female relatives, freedwomen, and servants. Such documents highlight not only women’s legal capacity to manage property but also their role in sustaining and transferring wealth within families and communities.

Marriage Contracts
Marriage contracts and related legal texts reveal the nuances of matrimonial arrangements, including property rights and dowry agreements. The tabulae, or bronze tablets from Roman law schools, sometimes contain hypothetical cases that give insights into legal thinking about marriage. While actual marriage contracts are rare, references in legal texts and literature describe conditions like the dos (dowry) and the rights of women to reclaim this dowry in case of divorce, indicating a degree of financial protection and personal agency within the marriage.

Dedicatory and Funerary Inscriptions
Dedicatory and funerary inscriptions offer valuable insights into women’s roles in religious and familial contexts. For example, dedicatory inscriptions to female deities or by women in honour of their deceased relatives illustrate women’s active participation in spiritual life and their efforts to memorialise family members. The epitaphs on tombstones, such as those found along the Via Appia^[11] in Rome, often commemorate the virtues of Roman matrons, highlighting their roles as wives, mothers, and managers of the household. These inscriptions serve as public acknowledgements of women’s contributions to family and society.

Epigraphic Evidence of Public Roles
Inscriptions also provide evidence of women’s involvement in public and economic life. For instance, inscriptions from Ostia, the port city of ancient Rome, record women as patrons of buildings and public works, indicating their engagement in civic life and their capacity to wield influence in the public domain. Additionally, inscriptions and graffiti from Pompeii and Herculaneum offer glimpses into the everyday lives of women in ancient Rome, including their social networks, business activities, and personal expressions, highlighting a level of agency in both economic and social contexts.

Legal Status and Agency
Legal inscriptions, such as those found on the lex (laws) and senatus consulta (senate decrees), occasionally reference women directly, shedding light on changes in legal practices and attitudes towards women over time. For example, the Lex Voconia^[12] (169 BC) restricted the ability of women to inherit as principal heirs in the wealthiest classes, reflecting contemporary concerns about wealth concentration and female agency. Conversely, later legal reforms, such as those under Augustus, sought to regulate family life and inheritance in ways that both restricted and protected women’s interests.

Through legal documents, inscriptions, and epigraphic evidence, we gain a better understanding of the complex legal and social status of women in ancient Rome. These sources reveal a spectrum of female agency, from the management of property and participation in legal contracts to active roles in religious and public life.

Despite the patriarchal constraints of Roman society, women navigated a variety of roles and exerted influence in both the private and public spheres, contributing to the economic, social, and cultural fabric of Rome.

Gender Norms and Expectations in Ancient Rome
The societal expectations of women in ancient Rome were deeply rooted in ideals of modesty, fidelity, and domesticity. These norms were not only cultural ideals but were also reinforced through laws, literature, and public ceremonies. However, the actual lived experiences of Roman women often presented a more complex picture, revealing a dynamic interplay between societal expectations and women’s agency in managing businesses, owning property, and navigating complex social networks.

Ideals of Modesty, Fidelity, and Domesticity
Modesty (pudicitia) was a cornerstone of a Roman woman’s virtue, closely tied to her social standing and family’s honour. Fidelity (fides) was equally crucial, encompassing loyalty to one’s husband and family. Domesticity emphasised women’s roles within the household, managing domestic affairs and raising children. These ideals were celebrated in literature, inscriptions, and state-sponsored rituals, such as the Vestal Virgins’ cult, which symbolised the city’s well-being through the chastity of its priestesses.

The Realities of Economic and Social Agency
Despite these stringent norms, many women in Rome managed businesses, owned property, and were actively engaged in social and political networks. Inscriptions and legal documents attest to women’s roles as property owners and business managers, particularly in the retail, service, and textile industries. For example, evidence from Pompeii and Herculaneum shows women owning and running inns, bakeries, and shops.

Women’s economic activities were often framed within the context of their household duties or as extensions of their roles as wives and mothers. However, these ventures could also grant them and influence, challenging traditional norms about women’s capacities and roles.

Navigating Complex Social Networks
Roman women, particularly those from elite families, navigated complex social networks, wielding influence behind the scenes. Through marriage alliances, patron-client relationships, and social gatherings, women could exert a degree of political influence. The letters of Pliny the Younger^[13], for instance, reveal how elite women like his wife, Calpurnia, and her aunt played active roles in social and familial networks, contributing to their family’s prestige and influence.

Women’s participation in religious cults and festivals also provided avenues for social and sometimes political engagement. The cult of Isis, for example, attracted a following among women, offering them roles in religious observances and community activities that went beyond the domestic sphere.

Tension between Ideals and Realities
The tension between societal expectations of women and their actual lived experiences underscores the complexities of gender norms in ancient Rome. While ideals of modesty, fidelity, and domesticity sought to define and constrain women’s roles, the realities of women’s lives often reflected resilience, adaptability, and agency.

This dynamic tension was not without its challenges. Women who stepped too far outside traditional norms could face social censure or legal repercussions. Yet, the enduring legacy of notable women in business, literature, and public life indicates that Roman society was, at least to some extent, flexible and responsive to the diverse roles women played.

Thus, the interplay between gender norms and the lived experiences of Roman women reveals a society in which ideals of femininity coexisted with, and were sometimes challenged by, women’s active engagement in economic, social, and political life. This complexity highlights the nuanced ways in which Roman women navigated and influenced the world around them despite the constraints of a patriarchal system.

Scholarly Perspectives on Gender, Class, and Power in Ancient Rome
Recent scholarly debates and perspectives have significantly enriched our understanding of gender, class, and power in ancient Rome, offering nuanced interpretations of women’s roles and the construction of gender in Roman society. These discussions often intersect with broader themes of feminism in ancient studies, the impact of empire on social roles, and the complex interplay between public and private spheres.

Feminism in Ancient Studies
Feminist scholarship has profoundly influenced the study of ancient Rome, challenging traditional narratives and highlighting the experiences of women across different strata of Roman society. Scholars like Sarah B. Pomeroy^[14] have paved the way with works that explore women’s lives beyond their relationships with men, focusing on their agency, contributions, and challenges within a patriarchal society. Feminist approaches have emphasised the need to reconsider the sources, questioning who writes history and whose stories are told, leading to a more inclusive view of the past.

Construction of Gender in Roman Society
Scholarly work on the construction of gender in Roman society examines how gender roles were defined, negotiated, and contested within the context of family, law, and public life. Scholars like Judith P. Hallett^[15] and Mary Beard^[16] have explored how Roman literature and legal texts not only reflect but also shape societal norms regarding masculinity and femininity. These studies reveal that gender roles were fluid and could be manipulated for social, political, and economic purposes, demonstrating the performative aspect of gender in Roman culture.

Recent research has also delved into the experiences of non-binary and transgender individuals in ancient Rome, challenging the binary view of gender and exploring the complexities of sexual identity and expression in the ancient world.

Class, Power, and Women’s Roles
The intersection of class and gender is a critical area of study, with scholars examining how social status affected women’s lives and opportunities. The impact of the Roman Empire’s expansion on women’s roles has been a point of interest, analysing how conquest and colonisation brought changes to family structures, economic opportunities, and social mobility. Studies have shown that while elite women could wield considerable influence and autonomy, women of lower classes faced different sets of challenges and opportunities, often linked to labour and economic survival.

The role of slavery and freedwomen in Roman society further complicates the picture, as these women navigated a precarious landscape of power and marginalisation, highlighting the diversity of women’s experiences within the empire.

Impact of Empire on Women’s Roles
The expansion of the Roman Empire had profound effects on gender roles and relations, both within Rome and in the provinces. Scholars like Londa Schiebinger^[17] and Shelagh Jameson^[18] have explored how imperial policies and cultural exchanges impacted women’s legal rights, social status, and economic activities. The incorporation of diverse peoples and cultures into the empire led to a dynamic interaction of gender norms, with local traditions both resisting and adapting to Roman models.

Recent scholarly debates and perspectives enrich our understanding of the complex landscape of gender, class, and power in ancient Rome. By integrating feminist approaches, exploring the construction of gender, and examining the impact of class and empire, these discussions offer a more nuanced and comprehensive view of Roman society. They challenge us to reconsider our assumptions about the past and to recognise the diverse experiences of women who navigated a world of constraints and possibilities.

Legal and Social Status

• Marriage: Marriage in Rome was not just a personal union but a social contract crucial for familial alliances and societal stability. Women entered marriages arranged by their families, yet they retained certain rights within these unions, such as property ownership and the right to divorce under specific conditions. Worth mentioning here is The Villa of the Mysteries (Italian: Villa dei Misteri) is a well-preserved suburban ancient Roman villa on the outskirts of Pompeii, southern Italy. It is famous for the series of exquisite frescos in Room 5, which are usually interpreted as showing the initiation of a bride into a Greco-Roman mystery cult.^[19]
• Marriageable Age: In ancient Rome, the legal minimum age for girls to marry was 12 years old. However, the actual age at which a girl married could vary significantly depending on her social class, family circumstances, and the period in Roman history. During the Republic and the early Empire, it was common for girls of the upper classes to marry in their early teens, often shortly after reaching puberty. This practice was partly due to the emphasis on forming political and economic alliances through marriage, with families arranging matches to strengthen their social standing and networks. In contrast, girls from lower social classes might marry later, depending on economic conditions and family needs. The variability in marriage age reflects the diverse social and economic landscapes of ancient Rome, as well as the changing norms over the centuries. Despite the legal stipulations, the lived reality of Roman women and girls was shaped by a multitude of factors, including family strategy, economic considerations, and personal circumstances.

Image: The Villa of the Mysteries, location (top left), outside Pompeii
Citation: Villa of the Mysteries. (2023, December 8). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries
Attribution: cmglee, MaxViol, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons

• Divorce and Remarriage: Divorce in ancient Rome became more common in the later Republic and Empire, reflecting changing social dynamics. Women could initiate divorce, and while remarriage was common, it brought about complex familial and social negotiations, particularly concerning children and property.
• Concubinage in Ancient Rome: Concubinage was a recognised practice, distinct from marriage, offering women certain protections but not the full legal or social status of a wife. The children of concubines often faced legal disadvantages compared to those born within wedlock.
• Women and the Law: Roman law both empowered and restricted women. While they could own property and were entitled to personal wealth, their legal capacity was often mediated through male guardians. This duality reflected a society valuing women’s economic contributions but limiting their direct legal agency.

Family Life and Social Relations

• Motherhood: Motherhood was highly valued, with societal expectations emphasising women’s roles in bearing and raising children. Maternal mortality, however, was high, and the care of children often fell to extended family or servants in wealthy households.
• Childhood and Education: Girls received varying levels of education, often focused on domestic skills but sometimes including literature and music. The education level depended largely on the family’s status and the father’s views on female education.
• Daily Life: The daily life of Roman women varied greatly by social class. While elite women managed households and participated in social events, lower-class women often engaged in labour or ran small businesses to support their families.

Economic and Political Participation

• Women in Business: Evidence^[20] suggests that women engaged in various forms of business, from running shops and taverns to managing larger estates. These activities, however, were typically framed within the context of their household duties.
• Women in Politics: Though formally excluded from politics, women of influence could exert considerable power behind the scenes. Their roles were pivotal in forming alliances, and they could significantly impact political decisions through their relationships with male relatives.

Personal Freedoms and Constraints

• Women and their Sexuality: Roman attitudes toward female sexuality were complex, intertwining respectability with the social and political utility of marriage and childbirth. Vestal Virgins represented chastity in public religion, while literature and law depicted varied perspectives on female sexuality.
• Social Activities: Women participated in religious festivals, funerals, and, to some extent, public entertainment. Their social lives were regulated by societal expectations of modesty and decorum, varying significantly across different classes.
• Attire and Beautification: Fashion and personal adornment were important aspects of female identity in Rome, reflecting status, taste, and moral character. Legislation sometimes sought to control these expressions, highlighting tensions between personal freedom and social norms.
• Gynaecology and Medicine: Roman medicine on women’s health was a mix of empirical care and superstition. Gynaecological texts of the time, while limited, show an attempt to understand female anatomy and reproductive health, though often through the lens of male observers.

Conclusions

The Dynamic Roles of Women in Ancient Rome
The examination of women’s roles in ancient Rome, illuminated through legal documents, societal norms, religious practices, and modern scholarly analysis, reveals a society of deep complexity and contrast. This exploration underscores a dynamic interplay between the legal constraints imposed by a patriarchal system, societal expectations rooted in ideals of modesty, fidelity, and domesticity, and the individual agency women exhibited within and beyond these boundaries.

Legal Constraints and Societal Expectations
Roman women operated within a framework defined by both legal restrictions and stringent social norms. The patriarchal legal system, exemplified by the patria potestas, delineated their roles, often limiting their participation in public and political life. Despite these limitations, evidence from legal texts and inscriptions shows that women found ways to assert their rights and interests, particularly in the realms of property ownership, business ventures, and legal disputes. This legal complexity and the capacity of the Roman system to, at times, accommodate women’s agency highlight the nuanced nature of their societal participation.

Agency and Influence
Despite the overarching constraints, Roman women of all classes displayed resilience and resourcefulness. From the influential spheres occupied by elite women like Livia Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger to the economic contributions of lower-class women, the spectrum of female agency is undeniable. Religious cults and public festivals offered additional venues for engagement and influence, illustrating the myriad ways in which women could and did impact the broader societal and cultural landscape.

Notable Figures and Everyday Lives
The stories of women such as Cornelia and Fulvia, alongside the experiences of lesser-known women, showcase the diverse strategies employed to navigate—and at times challenge—their prescribed roles.

These narratives, enriched by feminist scholarship and debates on gender, class, and power, offer a more layered understanding of ancient Rome, challenging traditional narratives and emphasising the fluidity of gender roles.

The best-known woman in ancient Rome was not a Roman by birth. Cleopatra VII, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, stands out for her profound impact on Roman politics and history. Her relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, pivotal figures in Rome’s transition from Republic to Empire, and her involvement in the political intrigues and wars of her time make her one of the most famous women associated with ancient Rome. Her life story has been immortalised in various works of literature and art, symbolising her enduring fame and influence.

Image: Richard Burton as Mark Antony with Elizabeth Taylor as Cleopatra
Citation: Cleopatra. (2024, February 13). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_(1963_film)
Attribution: Courier-Gazette, McKinney, TX Photo from 20th Century Fox, producer of the film., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Scholarly Perspectives and the Fabric of Roman Life
Recent scholarly debates have significantly contributed to our understanding of the complexities of Roman society, questioning long-held assumptions and highlighting the contributions of women across the empire. These discussions have not only shed light on the experiences of women but also prompted a broader reevaluation of Roman culture, politics, and social dynamics, revealing a society where the boundaries of gender and class were both rigid and permeable.

A Comprehensive View of Roman Society
Ultimately, the exploration of women’s roles in ancient Rome provides key insights into the broader workings of Roman society, revealing a world where legal constraints and opportunities for agency coexisted and where traditional norms were both upheld and contested. This nuanced view enriches our overall comprehension of Roman history, underscoring the integral role women played in shaping the social, economic, and political landscape of their time.

In conclusion, the lives of Roman women, in all their complexity, mirror the dynamic interplay of structure and agency that characterises human societies across ages. Their stories, from the public achievements of prominent figures to the private resilience of women of lower status, contribute to a richer and more vibrant picture of ancient Rome, highlighting the enduring power of individuals and groups to navigate, and sometimes transform, the world around them.

Appendix: Influential and Memorable Women of Ancient Rome

(In alphabetical order)

• Agrippina the Elder: Agrippina the Elder (14 BC–33 AD), granddaughter of Augustus, embodied the virtues and tragedies of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Married to Germanicus, her life was marked by her outspoken opposition to Emperor Tiberius and the tragic fates of her family members. Her banishment and eventual death by starvation highlight the dangers faced by those who challenged the imperial authority in ancient Rome.
• Agrippina the Younger: Agrippina the Younger (15–59 AD), mother of Emperor Nero, was a master of political intrigue, leveraging her Julian lineage to secure Nero’s adoption and succession to Emperor Claudius. Her eventual assassination by her own son marks a dramatic end to her ambitious manoeuvring, illustrating the volatile nature of power dynamics within the Roman imperial family.
• Aurelia Cotta: Aurelia Cotta (120–54 BC), the mother of Julius Caesar, was a formidable matron of ancient Rome. With her husband absent or deceased for much of her life, Aurelia took charge of raising her children, including the future dictator, in Rome’s Subura district—a testament to her independence and resilience. Esteemed for her intelligence and determination, Aurelia played a crucial role in Caesar’s early survival, notably intervening to prevent his execution by Sulla. Her influence extended to the upbringing of Caesar’s daughter, Julia, embodying the strength and influence a Roman matron could wield.
• Cornelia Africana: Cornelia Africana (circa 190–100 BC), daughter of the celebrated general Scipio Africanus, was renowned for her virtue, intelligence, and the dignified manner in which she raised her illustrious sons, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. Despite personal tragedy, including the early death of her husband and the violent ends of her sons, Cornelia remained a paragon of maternal virtue and Roman femininity, her legacy immortalised in Roman memory through statues and her idealised role as the exemplar of Roman motherhood.
• Fulvia: Fulvia (83–40 BC), a prominent political figure in the late Roman Republic, was known for her active involvement in her husbands’ careers, including that of Mark Antony. Her leadership in the Perusine War against Octavian underscored her formidable influence and determination. Fulvia’s actions demonstrate the indirect but potent political role women could play in Rome’s turbulent transition from Republic to Empire.
• Helena: Helena, born around AD 250, rose from humble beginnings to become the mother of Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor of Rome. Her pilgrimage to Jerusalem and discovery of what was believed to be the True Cross marked her as a significant figure in Christian history. Helena is celebrated for her piety and charity, her legacy enduring as a saint in both the Eastern Orthodox and Western Christian traditions.
• Hortensia: Hortensia stands out as a formidable orator in ancient Rome, making history with her bold speech before the Second Triumvirate in 42 BC. Challenging the imposition of taxes on wealthy Roman women to fund a war, Hortensia’s eloquence and logic forced a reduction in the number of women taxed. Her actions underscore the potential influence of women in Roman political life, despite the severe restrictions on their public roles.
• Julia Domna: Julia Domna (170–217 AD), wife of Emperor Septimius Severus and mother to Emperors Caracalla and Geta, played a pivotal role in the political and intellectual life of her time. Born in Syria, her influence extended beyond the domestic sphere, involving herself in her husband’s administration and supporting philosophical circles. Julia’s life illustrates the potential for imperial women to wield significant influence in both the public and private arenas of Roman life.
• Livia Drusilla: Livia Drusilla (58 BC–29 AD), the first empress of Rome and wife of Augustus, was a paradigm of power and influence behind the throne. Her role as a political advisor and the mother of Emperor Tiberius highlighted the complex interplay of familial and political power in the early Empire. Livia’s legacy, marred by rumours of treachery, reflects the enduring fascination and controversy surrounding her character in Roman history.
• Livilla: Livilla (13 BC to AD 31), sister to Emperor Claudius, is infamous for her role in the dark political intrigues of the early Roman Empire. Her marriage to Drusus, son of Emperor Tiberius, ended with his poisoning—a crime later revealed to have been orchestrated by Livilla and her lover, Sejanus, as part of a failed coup. Her eventual fate, death by starvation, ordered by her own family, reflects the brutal reality of power struggles in the Roman imperial family.
• Lucilla: Lucilla, daughter of Emperor Marcus Aurelius and born around AD 150, married co-emperor Lucius Verus at a young age. Following Verus’ death, she remarried and was involved in a failed assassination plot against her brother, Emperor Commodus, aiming to replace him and possibly assume power herself. The plot’s failure led to her banishment and eventual execution in AD 182, highlighting the dangerous intrigues of imperial Rome and the boldness of Lucilla’s challenge to her brother’s tyrannical rule.
• Octavia the Younger: Octavia the Younger (69–11 BC), sister to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, was a figure of dignity and grace in the early imperial family. Married to Mark Antony as a political alliance, she navigated the treacherous waters of Roman politics with loyalty and integrity. Despite Antony’s desertion for Cleopatra, Octavia remained a respected figure, caring for Antony’s children and her own. Her life exemplifies the roles of Roman women in supporting and stabilising the Roman elite.
• Porcia Catonis: Porcia Catonis, daughter of Cato the Younger and wife of Brutus, was celebrated for her stoicism, intelligence, and the dramatic expression of loyalty to her husband. Her reputed suicide, mirroring Brutus’s own end, epitomises the tragic nobility associated with the fall of the Roman Republic. Porcia’s life and death highlight the intense personal and political conflicts of Rome’s transition from Republic to Empire.
• Servillia Caepionis: Servilia Caepionis, a central figure in the late Roman Republic, wielded her influence through her relationships with key figures like Julius Caesar, with whom she had a long-standing affair, and her sons Brutus and Cassius, leading conspirators against Caesar. Servilia’s life was entwined with the era’s political turmoil, reflecting the complex interplay of personal and political power in the Republic’s final years.
• Valeria Messalina: Valeria Messalina (circa 20–48 AD), the third wife of Emperor Claudius, is infamous for her alleged promiscuity and ruthless manipulation of power. Her reign as empress was marked by scandal and the execution of those she perceived as threats. Her ultimate downfall and execution, following a purported mock marriage with a senator, underscore the lethal nature of imperial politics and the precarious position of women within it, regardless of their rank.

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Sources and Further Reading

• A History of the Roman Empire in 21 Women, by Emma Southon (2023), published by Oneworld Publications, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/History-Roman-Empire-21-Women/dp/0861542304
• Ancient Rome: Infographics, by Nicolas Guillerat (Author), John Scheid (Author), Milan Melocco (Author), Philip Matyszak (Foreword) (2021), published by Thames & Hudson Ltd., available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ancient-Rome-Infographics-Nicolas-Guillerat/dp/0500252629/
• Clodia Metelli: The Tribune’s Sister, by Marilyn B. Skinner (2011), published by Oxford University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Clodia-Metelli-Tribunes-Sister-Antiquity/dp/0195375017
• Daughters of Hecate: Women and Magic in the Ancient World, edited by Kimberly B. Stratton with Dayna S. Kalleres (2014), published by Oxford University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Daughters-Hecate-Women-Magic-Ancient/dp/0195342712/
• Domina: The Women Who Made Imperial Rome, by Guy De La Bédoyère (2020), published by Yale University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Domina-Women-Made-Imperial-Rome/dp/0300254849
• Goddesses, Whores, Wives and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity, by Sarah B Pomeroy (1994), published by Pimlico, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Goddesses-Whores-Wives-Slaves-Classical/dp/0712660542
• Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars, by Jasper Burns (2006), published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Great-Women-Imperial-Rome-Mothers/dp/0415408989/
• Imperial Women of Rome: Power, Gender, Context, by Mary T. Boatwright (2021), published by OUP USA, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Imperial-Women-Rome-Gender-Context/dp/0190455896
• Matrona Docta: Educated Women in the Roman Elite from Cornelia to Julia Domna, by Emily A. Hemelrijk (1999), published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Matrona-Docta-Routledge-Classical-Monographs/dp/0415196930
• Picturing Women in Late Medieval and Renaissance Art, by Christa Grössinger (1997), available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Picturing-Renaissance-Manchester-Grossinger-Paperback/dp/B00JYHIWBO
• Roman Women, by Eve D’Ambra (2007), published by Cambridge University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Roman-Women-Cambridge-Introduction-Civilization/dp/0521521580
• Roman Women: Their History and Habits, by John Percy Vyvian Dacre Balsdon (1983), published by Barnes & Noble, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Roman-Women-Their-History-Habits/dp/0064640620
• The First Ladies of Rome: The Women Behind the Caesars, by Annelise Freisenbruch (2011), published by Vintage, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/First-Ladies-Rome-Behind-Caesars/dp/0099523930/
• The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Edward Gibbon (Abridged Edition) (Penguin Classics) by Edward Gibbon (1996), published by Penguin, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/History-Decline-Fall-Roman-Empire/dp/0140433937/
• The Killing Ground: A Biography of Thermopylae, by Myke Cole (2024), published by Osprey Publishing, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Killing-Ground-Biography-Thermopylae/dp/1472858662/
• The Rise of the Roman Empire (Penguin Classics), by Polybius (Author), F.W. Walbank (Author), Ian Scott-Kilvert (Author) (1979), published by Penguin, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Rise-Roman-Empire-Penguin-Classics/dp/0140443622/
• The Women of the Caesars, by Guglielmo Ferrero (2008), published by Wildside Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Women-Caesars-Guglielmo-Ferrero/dp/1434468801
• Voices of Rome: Four Stories of Ancient Rome, by Lindsey Davis (2023), published by Hodder & Stoughton, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Voices-Rome-Four-Stories-Ancient/dp/1399721348/
• Women and Society in the Roman World: A Sourcebook of Inscriptions from the Roman West, edited by Emily Hemelrijk, Greg Woolf (2009), published by Cambridge University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Women-Society-Greek-Roman-Egypt/dp/0521588154/
• Women and the Roman City in the Latin West, edited by Emily Hemelrijk and Greg Woolf (2013), published by Brill, available from https://www.foyles.co.uk/book/women-and-the-roman-city-in-the-latin-west/emily-hemelrijk/9789004255944
• Women in Ancient Greece and Rome, by Michael Massey (2008), published by Cambridge University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Women-Ancient-Greece-Michael-Massey/dp/0521318076
• Women in Ancient Rome, by Paul Chrystal (2014), published by Amberley Publishing, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Women-Ancient-Rome-Paul-Chrystal/dp/1445643766
• Women in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook, by Bonnie Maclachlan (1964), published by Continuum Publishing Corp., available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Women-Ancient-Rome-Sourcebook-MacLachlan/dp/B00XTB2VYA
• Women in Roman Law and Society, by Jane F. Gardner (1987), published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Women-Roman-Society-Jane-Gardner/dp/041505902X
• Women of Ancient Rome: To Survive under the Patriarchy, by Lynda Telford (2023), published by Amberley Publishing, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Women-Ancient-Rome-Survive-Patriarchy/dp/1398106992/
• Women’s Life in Greece and Rome: A Source Book in Translation, by Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant (2016), published by Bloomsbury Publishing, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Womens-Life-Greece-Lefkowitz-Maureen/dp/1472578473/
• Women’s Religious Activity in the Roman Republic, by Celia E. Schultz (2021), published by The University of North Carolina Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Religious-Activity-Republic-Studies-History/dp/1469668807/

End Notes and Explanations

1. Source: Compiled from my research and using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
2. Explanation: Patria potestas was a legal doctrine in ancient Roman law that granted the male head of a family (the pater familias) almost absolute authority over his children and household, including the power to make legal decisions, arrange marriages, and even sell them into slavery. This paternal power was a fundamental aspect of Roman family structure, reflecting the deeply patriarchal nature of Roman society. ↑
3. The Lex Oppia was a Roman law enacted in 215 BC, during the Second Punic War, that imposed restrictions on women’s wealth, specifically limiting the amount of gold they could possess, the types of clothing they could wear, and prohibiting them from riding in chariots within the city or at public events. It was repealed in 195 BC, reflecting early Roman society’s attitudes towards luxury and the role of women, as well as the evolving social dynamics that allowed women to begin asserting their rights and challenging legal constraints. ↑
4. Explanation: The Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus, enacted in 18 BC by Augustus, was part of a series of social and moral legislations aimed at increasing the birthrate among the Roman upper classes and reinforcing traditional family values. This law imposed penalties on those who remained unmarried or childless and offered privileges to families with multiple children, thereby encouraging marriage and procreation within the Roman elite as a means to strengthen societal and moral fabric. ↑
5. Explanation: The Lex Papia Poppaea, enacted in AD 9, complemented the Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus by reinforcing Augustus’s social legislation aimed at promoting marriage and increasing the birthrate among Roman citizens. It introduced additional penalties for celibacy and childlessness while providing incentives for marriage and having children. This law targeted not only the Roman elite but the wider citizenry, further embedding the ideals of marital and familial responsibility into the legal and social framework of the Roman Empire. ↑
6. Explanation: The Punic Wars were a series of three major conflicts fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BC to 146 BC. They were crucial in establishing Rome’s dominance over the western Mediterranean. The First Punic War (264-241 BC) began over control of Sicily and ended with Rome’s victory, gaining Sicily. The Second Punic War (218-201 BC) is famous for Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps and his victories in Italy, but ended with Rome’s decisive victory at Zama and its control over much of the western Mediterranean. The Third Punic War (149-146 BC) resulted in the complete destruction of Carthage, making Rome the unchallenged power in the Mediterranean. These wars significantly shaped the Roman Empire’s expansion and its military and political strategies. ↑
7. Explanation: The Severan Dynasty, ruling from AD 193 to 235, marked a period of significant changes in the Roman Empire, characterized by military expansion, administrative restructuring, and increased reliance on the army for political power. Founded by Septimius Severus after the chaotic Year of the Five Emperors, the dynasty included notable emperors such as Caracalla, who granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire, and Elagabalus, known for religious controversies. The Severan rule ended with the assassination of Alexander Severus, leading to the Crisis of the Third Century, a time of military, political, and economic turmoil. ↑
8. Explanation: Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius (551–479 BC), emphasising moral integrity, filial piety, righteousness, and the importance of family and social harmony. Originating during the Spring and Autumn period in ancient China, Confucianism profoundly influenced Chinese culture and government, shaping social relationships and ethical norms. It advocates for a hierarchical, orderly society where everyone has a defined role and acts with virtue and respect towards others, promoting the idea of the “Junzi” or “superior person” who exemplifies moral qualities and righteousness in their actions. ↑
9. Explanation: The Capitoline Triad refers to a group of three chief deities worshipped in ancient Roman religion, housed in the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Rome’s Capitoline Hill. This triad consisted of Jupiter, the king of the gods and the god of sky and thunder, symbolising the Roman state’s power and authority; Juno, his wife and sister, the goddess of marriage and childbirth, representing the protection and welfare of the Roman state and its women; and Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, arts, trade, and strategy in war, embodying the intellectual and strategic aspects of Roman life. The worship of these deities together in the most important temple in Rome underscores their significance to Roman religion, politics, and society. ↑
10. Explanation: A freed woman in the context of ancient societies such as Rome and Greece, refers to a former enslaved person who has been legally released from slavery. In ancient Rome, this process was known as manumission, and it allowed enslaved individuals to gain their freedom through various means, such as by the will of their owner, by purchasing their own freedom, or through other legal mechanisms. Once freed, these individuals, known as “libertae” in the case of women, often still maintained certain obligations to their former owners, but they gained legal status that allowed them some rights and protections not available to them while they were enslaved. ↑
11. Explanation: The Via Appia, known as the Appian Way, is one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient republic. It connected Rome to Brindisi, Apulia, in southeast Italy, facilitating fast communication and transportation of troops and goods. Initiated in 312 BC by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus, the road was a vital route for military campaigns and economic trade, extending Roman influence into the southern regions and beyond. The Via Appia is renowned for its straightness and the engineering skill involved in its construction, as well as for the historical events and monuments along its path, making it a symbol of Rome’s enduring legacy. ↑
12. Explanation: The Lex Voconia was a Roman law established in 169 BC, during the Roman Republic. It was passed to restrict the inheritance rights of women; specifically, it prohibited women from being named as the main beneficiaries (heirs) in wills if the estate was above a certain value. This law aimed to prevent the excessive transfer of wealth into the hands of women, reflecting the patriarchal values of Roman society at the time. The Lex Voconia is an example of the legal mechanisms used to control the economic power and status of women in ancient Rome, and it highlights the gender biases inherent in Roman inheritance practices. ↑
13. Explanation: Pliny the Younger (AD 61/62–c. 113) was a Roman lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Known for his literary contributions, Pliny’s most famous work is his collection of letters, which provide a detailed insight into Roman administrative history and daily life during the 1^st

    century AD. These letters cover a wide range of topics, including the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, in which he describes the death of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, and offers one of the earliest eyewitness accounts of the disaster. Pliny’s correspondence also reflects his political career, personal relationships, and philosophical interests, making them valuable sources for understanding Roman society, culture, and governance. ↑

14. Explanation: Sarah B. Pomeroy is a distinguished American classical scholar and historian, renowned for her significant contributions to the study of women in antiquity. She has extensively explored the lives of women in ancient Greece and Rome, breaking new ground in a field that had long focused primarily on the experiences of men. Pomeroy’s work, which includes seminal books such as “Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity” (1975), has been pivotal in highlighting the roles, contributions, and daily lives of women in ancient societies. Her research has expanded our understanding of classical civilizations, emphasizing the importance of gender studies within historical scholarship and inspiring further research into the experiences of women in the ancient world. ↑
15. Explanation: Judith P. Hallett is a prominent American classicist and professor, known for her extensive work in Latin literature, Roman culture, and the study of women in the classical world. She has made significant contributions to the field of classics, particularly in understanding the roles and representations of women in ancient Rome and Greece. Hallett’s research often focuses on the interpretation of classical texts to explore the lives of women, family dynamics, and gender relations in antiquity. Through her scholarship, teaching, and mentorship, she has played a crucial role in advancing the study of classics and promoting the inclusion of gender and feminist perspectives within the discipline. ↑
16. Explanation: Mary Beard is a highly respected British classicist, author, and academic, who is a Professor of Classics at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Newnham College. She is known for her engaging and accessible approach to ancient history, bringing the classical world to a wider audience through her books, television programs, and public lectures. Beard’s work often explores the everyday lives of people in ancient Rome and Greece, challenging traditional narratives and highlighting the complexities of classical civilizations. She has written extensively on various topics, including the Roman Empire, ancient religions, and the role of women in antiquity. Beard’s contributions to public understanding of the classics have made her one of the most influential and recognizable figures in contemporary classical scholarship. ↑
17. Explanation: Londa Schiebinger is an esteemed American historian of science and the John L. Hinds Professor of History of Science at Stanford University. She is well-known for her pioneering research on the history of women in science, exploring how gender has influenced scientific research and knowledge production. Schiebinger’s work delves into the ways in which gender biases have shaped scientific disciplines and the participation of women in science from the early modern period to the present. Her contributions have significantly advanced the field of gender studies in science, highlighting the importance of incorporating gender analysis into scientific research and policy. Among her notable works is “The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science,” which examines how the exclusion of women from science has impacted the development of scientific knowledge. Schiebinger’s scholarship is pivotal in understanding the intersections of gender, science, and history. ↑
18. Explanation: Shelagh Jameson was a British classicist and academic known for her contributions to the study of ancient Greek and Roman history, particularly in the areas of epigraphy (the study of inscriptions) and numismatics (the study of coins). While specific details about her contributions may not be as widely recognised in broader public discourse as those of some other scholars mentioned, her work within the academic community has contributed to our understanding of ancient civilisations, their social structures, economic systems, and cultural practices. Jameson’s research has helped shed light on aspects of the ancient world through the detailed study of inscriptions and coins, offering insights into the political, social, and economic life of Greece and Rome. Her work exemplifies the importance of specialized studies in building a comprehensive picture of antiquity. ↑
19. Explanation: Villa of the Mysteries: These are now among the best known of the relatively rare survivals of Ancient Roman painting from the 1st century BC. Like the rest of the Roman city of Pompeii, the villa was buried in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. It was excavated from 1909 onwards. It is now a popular part of tourist visits to Pompeii and forms part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site at Pompeii. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries ↑
20. Information: The evidence suggesting that Roman women engaged in various forms of business comes from a variety of sources, including literary texts, legal documents, inscriptions, and archaeological findings. These sources collectively provide insights into the economic activities of women in ancient Rome, illustrating their involvement in running businesses and managing properties. Here’s a closer look at the types of evidence:

    Literary Texts: Ancient authors occasionally mention women’s involvement in economic activities. For example, the works of Pliny the Younger, a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome, include letters that reference women owning property and managing financial affairs. Although these accounts primarily focus on the elite, they suggest broader societal norms and practices.

    Legal Documents: Roman law texts, such as the Digest of Justinian, contain references to women’s economic rights and activities. These documents discuss cases involving women as property owners, business managers, and creditors, indicating that women’s engagement in business was legally recognised and somewhat common. Legal stipulations regarding women’s rights to own, inherit, and manage property provide a framework for understanding their economic roles.

    Inscriptions and Epigraphy: Inscriptions found on tombstones, statues, and public monuments offer valuable evidence of women’s roles in commerce and estate management. Many inscriptions commemorate women who were successful in business or who played significant roles in managing family estates. For example, inscriptions from the Roman provinces reveal women dedicating public works or being honored for their contributions to the local economy and community, indicating their active participation in business and estate management.

    Archaeological Evidence: Archaeological excavations have uncovered direct and indirect evidence of women’s involvement in commerce. For instance, artifacts and tools related to textile production, found in domestic and commercial contexts, suggest that women were engaged in this industry, which was a significant aspect of the Roman economy. Additionally, shops and taverns in Pompeii and other Roman cities often contain evidence suggesting that they were owned or operated by women, such as graffiti, signs, and household artifacts that point to the presence and economic activities of women in these spaces.

    Papyri: Documents from Roman Egypt, preserved in papyrus, provide a wealth of information about daily life, including the economic activities of women. These papyri include contracts, wills, and other legal documents that record women’s involvement in various forms of business, from small-scale trade to the management of substantial agricultural estates.

    Together, these sources paint a picture of a society in which women, despite facing legal and social constraints, were able to engage in a range of economic activities. Their participation in business was often an extension of their roles within the household, but it also reflects the broader economic needs and opportunities of Roman society. ↑