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Are Homo Sapiens Facing the Sixth Extinction?

Introduction[1]

For the first time in Earth’s 4.5 billion-year history, a single species – Homo sapiens – holds the potential to trigger a mass extinction event. Known as the Sixth Extinction, this phenomenon is unfolding rapidly, driven by human activities that are reshaping the planet’s ecosystems at an unprecedented scale. Climate change, habitat destruction, pollution, and the overexploitation of resources are converging to threaten countless species, including our own, with extinction.

Since the Industrial Revolution, humanity’s impact on the environment has accelerated dramatically. Global temperatures have risen by approximately 1.1 degrees Celsius since the pre-industrial era, driven by the release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O). These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, creating a “greenhouse effect” that disrupts natural climate systems. This warming has led to more frequent and severe extreme weather events, the melting of polar ice caps, and rising sea levels that threaten coastal communities and ecosystems.

PART ONE: SHOULD WE BE WORRIED?


What Could Go Wrong?

The consequences of a changing climate extend far beyond temperature changes. Coral reefs, which support a quarter of all marine life, are dying due to ocean warming and acidification. Polar species like the polar bear face dwindling habitats whilst entire ecosystems are being pushed to their breaking points. The rapid pace of these changes is outstripping many species’ ability to adapt, pushing them toward extinction.

Unlike previous mass extinctions, which were caused by natural events such as volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts, the Sixth Extinction is unique in its origins: it is driven by human actions. In this paper, I will explore the parallels between the current biodiversity crisis and the five great mass extinctions that preceded it. By examining the lessons of history, the current trajectory of environmental change, and potential solutions, we aim to highlight both the gravity of the situation and the opportunities for collective action.

The Anthropocene, the current epoch characterised by significant human influence on the planet, presents humanity with a profound choice: to become architects of destruction or stewards of sustainability. The decisions we make now will determine whether life on Earth flourishes or falters. Understanding the causes and consequences of past extinctions can provide critical insights for addressing the challenges of today.


The Concept and Importance of the Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect, a fundamental process that regulates Earth’s climate, was first identified in the early 19th century. French scientist Joseph Fourier[2] laid the groundwork for this concept in 1824, proposing that Earth’s atmosphere functions like the glass of a greenhouse, trapping heat and warming the planet. Fourier’s work, though groundbreaking, lacked the experimental evidence necessary to explain the specific mechanisms behind this phenomenon.

In the 1850s, Irish physicist John Tyndall[3] expanded on Fourier’s ideas by demonstrating the heat-trapping properties of certain atmospheric gases, including water vapour and carbon dioxide. Tyndall’s experiments confirmed that these gases absorb and retain heat, providing critical insights into how Earth’s atmosphere regulates temperature. This marked a turning point in the scientific understanding of atmospheric processes. The term greenhouse effect itself began to be commonly used in the early 20th century to describe this phenomenon. The scientific understanding of the greenhouse effect and its role in Earth’s climate has evolved significantly since these initial discoveries, becoming a central element in the study of global warming and climate change.

Over the past century, our understanding of the greenhouse effect has evolved significantly. What was once a natural and necessary process to sustain life on Earth has become a focal point of concern. Human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution, have dramatically increased concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄). This has intensified the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming and widespread environmental consequences.

How the Greenhouse Effect Works
The greenhouse effect occurs when certain gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap heat, preventing it from escaping into space. Solar radiation enters the atmosphere and warms Earth’s surface, which then emits heat in the form of infrared radiation. While some of this heat escapes, much of it is absorbed by greenhouse gases and re-emitted in all directions, effectively insulating the planet.

This process is essential for maintaining Earth’s habitable climate. Without it, the average global temperature would plummet to approximately -18°C, far below the current average of around 14°C. However, the rapid accumulation of greenhouse gases due to human activities has disrupted this balance. Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO₂ levels have risen sharply, contributing to a global temperature increase of approximately 1.2°C. This warming trend has accelerated in recent decades, with an average rate of 0.18°C per decade since 1981.


Relevance to Climate Change and Biodiversity Loss
The intensification of the greenhouse effect has profound implications for Earth’s ecosystems. Rising temperatures are triggering extreme weather events, melting polar ice caps, and causing sea-level rise. These changes disrupt habitats, threaten biodiversity, and push many species toward extinction. Coral reefs, for example, are experiencing widespread bleaching due to warmer oceans, while polar species face dwindling habitats.

Understanding the greenhouse effect is crucial to addressing the broader challenges of climate change and its role in the ongoing biodiversity crisis. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to renewable energy sources, humanity has the opportunity to mitigate these impacts and preserve the delicate balance of Earth’s ecosystems.


Addressing Climate Change

To combat climate change, nations worldwide have united to set ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, stands as a landmark international accord, with nearly every country committing to limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels whilst aiming for an aspirational target of 1.5°C. Achieving these goals demands significant systemic changes: transitioning to renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydropower; enhancing energy efficiency; adopting reforestation and sustainable agriculture practices; and innovating in technologies like carbon capture and storage.

Mitigating climate change requires action on multiple levels. Globally, governments and industries must invest in sustainable infrastructure, move towards a low-carbon economy, and enact policies to curb emissions. On an individual level, choices such as reducing energy consumption, using public transportation, and embracing plant-based diets can collectively make a difference. Technological advances, rising public awareness, and increasing political will are driving forces in this effort, though the pace of change must accelerate to avoid the most severe consequences.

While the challenges of climate change are unprecedented in human history, Earth itself is no stranger to catastrophic upheaval. Over its 4.5 billion-year history, the planet has experienced at least five major mass extinctions, each marking a dramatic collapse in biodiversity and a reshaping of ecosystems.

The Ordovician-Silurian extinction, approximately 440 million years ago, likely resulted from massive glaciations triggered by global cooling.

The Permian-Triassic extinction, known as “The Great Dying,” wiped out around 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrates, driven by volcanic eruptions, methane releases, and ocean anoxia. The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, which ended the reign of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, was precipitated by an asteroid impact, illustrating the vulnerability of life to external shocks.

Unlike the natural catastrophes that caused past extinctions, today’s crisis is driven by human activities. Deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, and the industrial emission of greenhouse gases are altering Earth’s atmosphere and ecosystems at an unprecedented pace. This human-driven alteration has the potential to become the Sixth Extinction, but for the first time, the agents of this change – Homo sapiens – possess the knowledge and tools to mitigate it.

Humans, as Homo sapiens, emerged approximately 300,000 years ago in Africa. Fossil evidence, such as the remains from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, dated to 315,000 years ago, provides the earliest examples of our species. Genetic studies further confirm this timeline, tracing modern humans back to common ancestors from the same period. However, it wasn’t until the Cognitive Revolution, some 50,000–70,000 years ago, that humans began exhibiting behaviours characteristic of modernity, including symbolic thought, advanced tool use, and artistic expression. This revolution also coincided with migrations out of Africa and the subsequent colonisation of other continents.

The Cognitive Revolution not only shaped our species’ intellectual capabilities but also enabled the technological and cultural advancements that have allowed humans to dominate ecosystems. This dominance, however, comes with a cost. The tools and behaviours that once helped Homo sapiens survive and thrive now pose a threat to the planet’s biodiversity and climate stability. Unlike other species that faced extinction passively, humans have the unique ability to comprehend and address their impact on Earth. Whether this knowledge will be used to prevent catastrophe or exacerbate it remains an open question.

Having mentioned the Cognitive Revolution, it is important to explore its implications further to understand how it has shaped the Anthropocene epoch and humanity’s unprecedented role, both as stewards and threats to the biosphere.


The Prehistoric Cognitive Revolution (Circa 70,000 Years Ago)

The Cognitive Revolution refers to a profound shift in human cognitive abilities that occurred roughly 70,000 years ago during the Middle Paleolithic era. It marked a significant turning point in human history, enabling Homo sapiens to develop advanced forms of thought, communication, and social organisation. This revolution is often credited with giving modern humans an advantage over other species, including other human-like species such as Neanderthals.

The prehistoric Cognitive Revolution should not be confused with the modern Cognitive Revolution, which emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as a response to behaviourism’s dominance in psychology and led to the birth of cognitive science.

Key Features
Enhanced Language and Communication:

  • The emergence of complex language allowed Homo sapiens to share detailed information, express abstract concepts, and build large, cohesive social groups.
  • Language made it possible to transmit knowledge across generations, fostering cultural evolution.

Early humans likely used language to organise complex activities such as coordinated hunts. For instance, fossil evidence from the site of Schöningen, Germany, suggests early Homo sapiens hunted large animals like horses and bison using sophisticated strategies, which would have required detailed communication.

Development of Abstract Thinking:

  • Humans began to think in symbolic and abstract ways, enabling the creation of myths, religions, and belief systems.
  • This ability allowed people to cooperate on a larger scale by rallying around shared ideas or imagined constructs, such as tribes, nations, or gods.

As an example, the Venus figurines, small carved statues of women found across Europe and Asia dating back as far as 35,000 years, are believed to represent symbolic or spiritual thought. These objects highlight the capacity of Homo sapiens to create and interpret abstract ideas, possibly tied to fertility or shared myths.

Sophisticated Tools and Technology:

  • The revolution coincided with advancements in tool-making, including the production of composite tools and the use of fire in more controlled and innovative ways.
  • These technological improvements facilitated hunting, gathering, and survival in diverse environments.

The creation of composite tools such as the atlatl (a spear-throwing device) revolutionised hunting techniques by increasing range and precision. This innovation, widely used during the Upper Paleolithic, reflects a deep understanding of materials and engineering principles.

Art and Cultural Expression:

  • Archaeological evidence, such as cave paintings, carvings, and personal ornaments, suggests the emergence of artistic expression and symbolic behaviour.
  • These cultural developments reflect the growing complexity of human thought and social structures.

As an example, the famous Lascaux Cave paintings in France, dated to around 17,000 years ago, depict vivid images of animals like horses, deer, and bison. These artworks not only suggest symbolic expression but also reveal a shared cultural practice that may have strengthened group identity.


Social Organisation:

  • The Cognitive Revolution enabled the formation of larger, more complex societies, often bound together by shared stories, rituals, and norms.
  • Cooperation among large groups became a defining characteristic of Homo sapiens.

By way of example, the construction of Göbekli Tepe[4], an archaeological site in modern-day Turkey dating back over 11,000 years, is thought to be one of the earliest examples of large-scale communal effort. Although slightly post-Cognitive Revolution, it reflects the societal organisation enabled by earlier cognitive advancements.

Impact on Other Species:

  • The revolution gave humans the ability to dominate ecosystems, leading to the spread of Homo sapiens across the globe.
  • This cognitive edge likely contributed to the extinction of many other species, including other hominins like Neanderthals.

The extinction of the mammoth and other megafauna during the Late Pleistocene is often linked to human hunting and environmental pressures, showing how Homo sapiens’ cognitive and social advantages could reshape ecosystems on a continental scale.

Historical Context
The Cognitive Revolution is often discussed as one of three major revolutions in human history, alongside the Agricultural Revolution (circa 10,000 years ago) and the Scientific Revolution (beginning in the 16th century). Whilst the Agricultural Revolution reshaped human societies through the domestication of plants and animals, and the Scientific Revolution transformed our understanding of the natural world, the Cognitive Revolution laid the foundational abilities that made both subsequent revolutions possible.

Long-term Impacts of the Cognitive Revolution

  • Dominance Over Other Species: The revolution enabled Homo sapiens to become the dominant species on Earth. Humans’ ability to strategise, cooperate in large groups, and innovate allowed them to outcompete other hominins and large predators, reshape ecosystems, and expand across continents.
  • Creation of Shared Realities: The ability to create and believe in shared myths or constructs—such as religion, money, and political systems—underpins modern civilisation. These shared beliefs enable large-scale cooperation and the development of institutions.
  • Cultural Evolution: Unlike genetic evolution, which is slow, cultural evolution accelerated with the Cognitive Revolution. Innovations, ideas, and knowledge could be passed down, refined, and built upon, leading to rapid progress in technology, art, and society.
  • Environmental Impact: The cognitive advantage allowed humans to significantly alter their environment, contributing to deforestation, megafaunal extinctions, and, eventually, the Anthropocene epoch – a time when human activity has become the dominant influence on Earth’s ecosystems.
  • Foundation for Modern Society: Without the Cognitive Revolution, the complex societies, technologies, and ideologies that define the modern world would not have emerged. It set the stage for the development of agriculture, writing, and science.

The Cognitive Revolution represents a fundamental shift in the capabilities of Homo sapiens. By developing complex language, abstract thinking, and the ability to form large social networks, humans set themselves apart from other species. This revolution allowed for unparalleled levels of innovation, cooperation, and adaptation, shaping the trajectory of human history and the world as we know it today.

Whilst the Cognitive Revolution enabled humans to thrive and reshape the planet, it also laid the groundwork for environmental exploitation and biodiversity loss. These very abilities that ensured human dominance now risk becoming the drivers of the Sixth Extinction.


Is a Sixth Extinction already in Progress?

Scientists agree that Earth has experienced five major mass extinctions, and many now argue that a Sixth Extinction, driven by human activities, is not only imminent but already underway. This belief has given rise to the concept of the Anthropocene – a new, human-dominated epoch marked by significant anthropogenic impacts on the planet.

In a 2008 article published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences[5], researchers highlighted the dramatic declines in amphibian populations to pose a critical question: “Are We in the Midst of the Sixth Mass Extinction?” Their findings suggested that this extinction event is indeed unfolding, evidenced by rapid extinction rates among amphibians. Often described as “canaries in the coal mine,” amphibians’ sensitivity to environmental changes has made them an early warning sign of broader biodiversity loss.

However, the crisis extends far beyond amphibians. Reef-building corals, sharks, rays, freshwater molluscs, reptiles, mammals, and birds are all experiencing significant population declines. Although the immediate causes vary—from habitat destruction to pollution and climate change they can ultimately be traced back to human actions altering the planet’s natural systems.

Dr Jane Goodall (see next section), a leading voice in conservation, has described the ongoing crisis as the “sixth great extinction,” distinguishing it from previous extinctions driven by natural events. In an interview with BBC Radio 4’s Inside Science[6], she underscored humanity’s responsibility for this crisis and the urgent need for action. While she praised reforestation efforts, she emphasised the critical role of mature forests in absorbing carbon dioxide more effectively than younger ones. Dr Goodall warned, “If we fail to unite and enforce stringent environmental regulations, if we continue to rely on fossil fuels, and if we do not halt destructive industrial farming practices, then our future looks bleak.”

This unprecedented crisis underscores the defining characteristic of the Anthropocene: humanity’s unparalleled power to shape and potentially destroy Earth’s ecosystems. The window for effective intervention is narrowing, and the time to act is now.


Who is Dr Jane Goodall?

Dr Dame Jane Morris Goodall, DBE, born in Hampstead, London, in 1934, is an internationally renowned primatologist, ethologist, and anthropologist. Best known for her groundbreaking research on the social and family behaviours of wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania, Dr Goodall has redefined our understanding of these primates and their connection to humanity. Since her initial expedition in 1960, her work has spanned over six decades, earning her recognition as one of the world’s foremost experts on chimpanzees.


Beyond her scientific achievements, Dr Goodall is a tireless advocate for biodiversity and environmental conservation. She founded the Jane Goodall Institute and the Roots & Shoots programme[7], focusing on protecting ecosystems, promoting sustainable practices, and empowering youth to drive environmental change. As a United Nations Messenger of Peace since 2002 and a board member of the Nonhuman Rights Project, Dr Goodall has used her platform to amplify the urgent need for global action to address biodiversity loss and climate change.

Her advocacy underscores the interconnectedness of all life and the critical role biodiversity plays in maintaining ecological balance. Dr Goodall has often emphasised that preserving mature forests, protecting wildlife habitats, and transitioning to sustainable agricultural practices are essential steps in addressing the biodiversity crisis. Her work serves as a reminder that while the challenges are immense, humanity has the tools and capacity to effect meaningful change.

Dr Goodall’s message is one of hope tempered with urgency. She calls on us to learn from the past, recognising that the disappearance of species is not an inevitable outcome but a consequence of human choices. By acting decisively now, we can prevent a Sixth Extinction and ensure a future where both humanity and the myriad species with which we share this planet can thrive.


The Five Mass Extinctions that Have Already Happened

As I’ve written earlier, our planet has endured five major mass extinctions, each representing a catastrophic decline in biodiversity and a profound reshaping of ecological communities. These events, triggered by various catastrophic disturbances, offer a stark reminder of Earth’s fragile equilibrium:

  • Ordovician-Silurian Extinction[8] (around 440 million years ago): This event was likely due to a dramatic cooling event that led to massive glaciations, causing severe marine species losses as habitats dramatically changed. Extinction was global, eliminating 49–60% of marine genera[9] and nearly 85% of marine species.
  • Late Devonian Extinction[10] (about 365 million years ago): This prolonged series of extinctions might have been caused by widespread anoxia[11] in the oceans and significant volcanic activity, affecting 75% of Earth’s species, including many marine invertebrates. Overall, 19% of all families and 50% of all genera became extinct. A second mass extinction called the Hangenberg event, also known as the end-Devonian extinction, occurred 359 million years ago, bringing an end to the Famennian and Devonian, as the world transitioned into the Carboniferous Period.
  • Permian-Triassic Extinction[12] (approximately 250 million years ago): The largest (so far) extinction event in Earth’s history, eradicating about 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species, possibly due to volcanic eruptions that led to catastrophic methane release and severe climate changes. The severity of the event caused the extinction of 57% of biological families, 83% of genera, 81% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species.
  • Triassic-Jurassic Extinction[13] (around 210 million years ago): This event, leading to the loss of around 80% of species, was possibly driven by massive volcanic eruptions and the consequent climate change, which reshaped ecosystems and paved the way for the dominance of dinosaurs.
  • Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction[14] (65 million years ago): An asteroid impact created the Chicxulub crater[15], leading to the extinction of about 76% of all plant and animal species, including all non-avian dinosaurs, dramatically altering the course of evolution and the composition of the biosphere. Most other tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg (55 lb) also became extinct, with the exception of some ectothermic species such as sea turtles and crocodilians.


These historical precedents set a sombre backdrop for understanding the current trajectory of anthropogenic climate change. Unlike the natural calamities that precipitated past extinctions, the present crisis is largely driven by human activities, such as deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial emissions of greenhouse gases. This ongoing alteration of the atmosphere and ecosystems is not without precedent in its potential to drive a mass extinction – but for the first time, the instigating force is a conscious inhabitant of the planet: humans.

As Homo sapiens, emerging long after the last great extinction, we find ourselves in a unique position. We possess the capability to understand our impact on the planet and the tools to mitigate it.


Avoiding a Potential Sixth Mass Extinction

Preventing a sixth mass extinction requires urgent and coordinated efforts on global and local scales. While the challenges are immense, a combination of technological innovation, policy changes, and shifts in societal behaviour can mitigate the ongoing biodiversity crisis. The following strategies are essential:

  • Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power is critical. Decarbonising economies through improved energy efficiency and adopting sustainable transport systems can significantly curb global warming.
  • Promote Sustainable Agriculture: Reforming agricultural practices to reduce environmental impacts includes minimising chemical pesticide and fertiliser use, adopting crop rotation, practising agroforestry, and supporting local food production to cut emissions from long-distance transport.
  • Restore and Protect Biodiversity: Establishing wildlife corridors, expanding protected areas, and reforesting degraded lands are vital for conserving ecosystems. Rewilding efforts, which reintroduce native species, can restore ecological balance.
  • Reduce Resource Consumption and Waste: Encouraging sustainable consumption patterns – such as reducing single-use plastics, promoting recycling, and designing durable products can decrease the environmental strain of production and waste.
  • Strengthen Environmental Legislation: Implementing and enforcing robust environmental policies at national and international levels can combat illegal logging, wildlife trafficking, and pollution while promoting sustainable resource management.
  • Foster Global Cooperation: Unified global action, such as strengthening international agreements like the Paris Agreement and supporting cross-border conservation initiatives, is essential to tackle shared environmental challenges.
  • Invest in Science and Education: Expanding research on conservation and sustainability, along with educating the public about the importance of biodiversity, can build a foundation for informed decision-making and foster a culture of environmental responsibility.
  • Support Indigenous Communities: Recognising and upholding the rights of Indigenous peoples, who are often stewards of critical ecosystems, can protect biodiversity hotspots while respecting cultural heritage.
  • Leverage Technology for Sustainability: Innovating in areas like carbon capture, biodiversity monitoring, and ocean and air cleaning technologies can mitigate human impacts and restore ecological systems.
  • Encourage Responsible Investment: Redirecting financial flows from environmentally harmful industries to those promoting sustainability, such as renewable energy and eco-friendly technologies, can accelerate the transition to a greener economy.

The success of these strategies depends not only on technological advances and effective policies but also on a profound shift in human values and behaviours. A sustainable future requires global solidarity and the recognition that the well-being of all life forms is interconnected. While the challenge is formidable, humanity has the capacity to act decisively and prevent the catastrophic consequences of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss.

Our capacity to innovate will come up with solutions to prevent the sixth extinction from taking place, as Part Two of my paper shows.

PART TWO: WILL GEOENGINEERING SAVE US?

If the actions of Homo sapiens could cause the sixth extension, so could its avoidance through what is known as geoengineering (or climate engineering).

The concept of using advanced technology to combat climate change, often termed geoengineering or climate engineering, includes a range of innovative solutions aimed at mitigating the effects of greenhouse gas emissions or directly cooling the planet. Below, I have listed detailed information on some of the technologies, such as mechanical trees, cloud brightening machines, and solar reactors that create fuel from the air – along with their principles, potential benefits, challenges, and the state of their development.


Mechanical Trees (Artificial Trees or Direct Air Capture Devices)


Mechanical trees are a promising solution to the excess atmospheric CO₂ driving climate change. They are modular and can be integrated into urban and industrial environments, offering a scalable approach to revolutionising carbon capture efforts. As the technology matures, mechanical trees may become critical tools in stabilising global temperatures and mitigating the impacts of climate change.

The technology consists of tall cylindrical units with discs coated in a resin-based material that captures CO₂ from the air. The discs are arranged to maximise surface area and airflow, enhancing capture efficiency. The system operates passively, using natural wind to bring air into contact with the discs, minimising energy requirements. Once saturated with CO₂, the discs are lowered into a chamber where water and heat release the captured gas. The CO₂ can then be stored underground or used in industrial applications, such as fuel production or construction materials.

Several companies are pioneering Direct Air Capture (DAC) technologies[16] with varying approaches:

  • Carbon Engineering (Canada): Uses a liquid-based system where a potassium hydroxide solution reacts with CO₂ to form potassium carbonate, which is later processed to isolate CO₂ for storage or conversion into synthetic fuels[17].
  • Climeworks (Switzerland): Employs solid sorbents in modular collectors that chemically bind CO₂. Heat releases the captured CO₂, which can then be stored underground or reused.
  • Carbon Collect (Ireland): Developed the MechanicalTree™ technology, created by Klaus Lackner at Arizona State University. These mechanical trees passively capture CO₂ using sorbent materials, releasing it for storage or industrial use.
  • Global Thermostat (United States): Utilises solid sorbents to capture CO₂, which is then sequestered or employed in industrial applications. In 2024, Global Thermostat was acquired by Zero Carbon Systems to enhance scalability and efficiency.

Potential Benefits:

  • Scalability: Can be deployed in diverse locations, including urban areas, deserts, and alongside renewable energy infrastructure.
  • Addressing Legacy Emissions: Captures CO₂ already present in the atmosphere, tackling historical emissions rather than just reducing future ones.
  • Land Independence: Unlike natural trees, mechanical trees do not require fertile soil or water, making them deployable in a variety of environments.

Challenges:

  • High Costs: Capturing one ton of CO₂ costs hundreds of dollars, requiring substantial cost reductions for widespread adoption.
  • Energy Demands: Although more passive than some DAC methods, scaling up mechanical trees could strain renewable energy resources unless paired with clean energy.
  • Storage Infrastructure: Captured CO₂ must be safely stored or utilised, necessitating robust pipelines and long-term monitoring systems.

Applications:

  • Carbon Offsetting: Companies can use mechanical trees to offset emissions, contributing to net-zero goals.
  • Circular Carbon Economy: Captured CO₂ can be repurposed into fuels, construction materials, or other industrial products.
  • Direct Air Capture Strategies: Mechanical trees are an essential part of broader DAC efforts aimed at removing excess atmospheric CO₂.

Mechanical trees combine scalability, efficiency, and adaptability, offering a viable pathway to reducing atmospheric CO₂. While challenges remain in terms of cost and infrastructure, ongoing advancements and investments suggest that these devices could play a vital role in mitigating climate change on a global scale.

Capturing Carbon Dioxide from the Air
Beyond existing direct air capture systems, a novel material has been developed that could significantly enhance carbon capture efforts[18]: Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, have developed a new material called COF-999, designed to capture carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the air more efficiently. This yellow powder has a structure that allows it to trap CO₂ effectively. In lab tests, COF-999 removed CO₂ from the air completely under certain conditions.

  • A notable feature of COF-999 is that it releases the captured CO₂ when heated to just 60°C, which is lower than the temperatures required by current technologies. This means it could use less energy and be more cost-effective.
  • Additionally, COF-999 has shown durability, maintaining its CO₂ capture ability over more than 100 cycles without significant loss in performance. However, COF-999 has not yet been tested outside the lab. Factors like how it affects airflow when used in filters need to be studied to determine its practical use.
  • COF-999 is a promising development in capturing CO₂ from the atmosphere, offering potential benefits in efficiency, energy savings, and durability. Further research is needed to assess its performance in real-world applications.

Cloud Brightening Machines (Marine Cloud Brightening)

Marine cloud brightening, an innovative geoengineering technique, seeks to mitigate the effects of global warming by enhancing the Earth’s natural albedo[19]. By increasing the reflectivity of clouds through the introduction of tiny particles into the atmosphere, this approach aims to reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the surface, offering a potential tool for cooling the planet.

How They Work:

  • Marine cloud brightening aims to reflect more sunlight away from the Earth’s surface by increasing the reflectivity (albedo) of clouds.
  • Machines spray tiny particles, like sea salt, into the atmosphere to create more or larger cloud droplets. These droplets scatter sunlight, cooling the planet.

Key Examples:

  • The Marine Cloud Brightening Project, led by researchers from the University of Washington and the Palo Alto Research Center, has conducted experiments using fine water mist to seed clouds.
  • Early prototypes involve ship-based sprayers that release seawater aerosols.

Potential Benefits:

  • Could rapidly cool the planet in localised areas, potentially reducing the effects of extreme heat waves or slowing polar ice melting.
  • Does not require long-term infrastructure like DAC or solar geoengineering.

Challenges:

  • Unintended consequences: Changes to precipitation patterns, regional climates, or ecosystems may occur.
  • Ethical and governance issues: Deploying cloud brightening on a large scale requires international cooperation due to its potential global effects.
  • Unproven long-term effectiveness: While small-scale experiments show promise, the impacts of large-scale deployment are still uncertain.

Solar Reactors (Artificial Photosynthesis or Solar Fuel Production)

Solar reactors mimic the process of photosynthesis to produce fuels like hydrogen, methane, or carbon monoxide from air, water, and sunlight. Some systems use concentrated solar power to heat materials (e.g., metal oxides) that react with water and CO₂, creating synthetic fuels. Other systems employ photocatalysts to split water molecules and reduce CO₂ into useable hydrocarbons.

Key Examples:

  • Synhelion, a Swiss company, has developed solar reactors capable of producing synthetic jet fuel. Their system uses concentrated solar power to generate the temperatures needed for fuel synthesis.
  • The Soletair Power Project, a collaboration between Finnish company VTT and Germany’s Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, creates synthetic fuels directly from air.

Potential Benefits:

  • Provides a carbon-neutral fuel source: Solar-derived fuels can replace fossil fuels without contributing additional CO₂ to the atmosphere.
  • Uses abundant resources: Air, sunlight, and water are widely available, making this technology globally applicable.

Challenges:

  • Efficiency: Current solar reactors have low energy conversion efficiency, meaning a lot of input energy is needed to produce relatively small amounts of fuel.
  • Cost: Requires investment in high-tech materials and large-scale infrastructure to compete with traditional fossil fuels.
  • Scalability: Transitioning global energy systems to synthetic fuels would require decades of infrastructure development.

Artificially photosynthesised fuel would be a carbon-neutral source of energy, but so far, it has never been demonstrated in any practical sense. The economics of artificial photosynthesis are noncompetitive.[20]


General Challenges and Considerations for Geoengineering Technologies

The solutions that are available are not standalone fixes; they must be integrated into broader efforts to reduce emissions, transition to renewable energy, and protect ecosystems. Other issues are:

  • Economic Feasibility: The technologies require significant upfront investment for research, development, and scaling. Governments, private investors, and international organisations need to collaborate to fund these initiatives.
  • Ethical and Governance Issues: Large-scale interventions in the Earth’s systems could lead to unintended side effects. International agreements are needed to regulate deployment and prevent misuse.
  • Public Acceptance: Some geoengineering proposals face public scepticism due to potential risks, high costs, and concerns about “technological quick fixes” overshadowing necessary systemic changes.

Relevant Organisations

This list includes some of the most influential organisations worldwide that address climate change, carbon emissions, and related environmental issues. These organisations include international bodies, governmental agencies, NGOs, and private initiatives actively working on climate mitigation, adaptation, and carbon management, and are shown alphabetically:


Prominent Research Initiatives

The following is a list of research initiatives and organisations focusing on climate change technologies and geoengineering, categorised for clarity and shown alphabetically:

Direct Air Capture (DAC) Initiatives:

  • Carbon Collect (Ireland): Developer of the MechanicalTree™ technology in collaboration with Klaus Lackner’s team at Arizona State University. https://carboncollect.com/
  • Carbon Engineering (Canada): Direct air capture and synthetic fuels. https://carbonengineering.com/
  • Climeworks (Switzerland): Focused on capturing CO₂ using modular collectors and utilising it for storage or industrial applications. https://climeworks.com/
  • Global Thermostat (United States): Specialises in DAC using solid sorbents for CO₂ removal and industrial use. (URL not found)

Solar Geoengineering and Reflectivity Research:

Carbon-to-Fuel Technologies:

Ocean-Based Solutions:

  • Ocean CDR (Carbon Dioxide Removal): Explores ocean alkalinity enhancement, a method to increase CO₂ uptake by seawater. https://ocean-cdr.eu/
  • Project Vesta (United States): Studies the potential of spreading olivine sand on beaches to enhance natural carbon sequestration in the oceans. https://www.projectvesta.org/

Forestation and Biochar Initiatives:

Advanced Solar and Renewable Energy Research:

  • Heliogen (United States): Develops concentrated solar technology for industrial applications and energy production. https://www.heliogen.com/
  • SolarPACES (International): Focuses on solar thermal power research to scale clean energy solutions. https://solarpaces.nrel.gov/

Climate Modelling and Governance Studies:

  • Carnegie Climate Geoengineering Governance Initiative (C2G): Works on ethical and governance frameworks for geoengineering technologies. https://c2g2.net/
  • National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR): Conducts climate modelling to predict the impacts of geoengineering interventions. https://ncar.ucar.edu/

Other Emerging Technologies and Research Centres or Initiatives:


Extinction Explained in Simple Terms


Close your eyes and imagine all the animals and plants in the world are like pieces of a giant puzzle. Each piece represents a species, an ecosystem, or a natural process, and together, they make the Earth work like a big, happy playground where everything helps everything else. Now, a “mass extinction” is like when someone comes along and removes many of those puzzle pieces all at once – so many that the playground stops working properly.

This has already happened a few times in Earth’s history, when huge disasters like giant volcanoes, a massive asteroid, or drastic climate changes caused many animals and plants to disappear forever. Remember the dinosaurs? They were wiped out about 66 million years ago when a giant asteroid crashed into Earth. Boom! That was one of the mass extinctions.

Mass extinctions are really important to study because they remind us how special and fragile life on Earth is. Today, some scientists think we might be heading toward a new mass extinction. Why? Because people are cutting down forests, polluting the oceans, and changing the climate so much that many animals and plants can’t survive.

But here’s the difference: all the other mass extinctions happened millions of years ago, long before humans like you, your friends, and your family even existed. This time, if a mass extinction begins, it won’t just be nature unfolding on its own—it will be something we can see and understand. And because we’re here now, we have the power to think, innovate, and take action to protect Earth’s puzzle pieces.

So, it’s kind of like we’ve all got a big job: to take care of the Earth’s playground and make sure we don’t lose too many puzzle pieces. By working together and taking steps to protect the planet, we can keep the playground thriving for everyone, today and in the future.


Conclusions

Throughout Earth’s history, the dominance of species has often ended suddenly and dramatically, with abrupt extinctions reshaping the course of life. Scientists have identified several major drivers of these mass extinctions, including:

  • Disruptions in ocean and atmospheric chemistry, such as increased carbon dioxide or oxygen shortages
  • Shifts in climate, from rapid warming to sudden ice ages
  • Intense volcanic eruptions releasing toxic gases and ash into the atmosphere
  • Impacts from meteors or asteroids, which can cause massive explosions and block sunlight

Each of these factors has triggered significant environmental changes, making it difficult for many species to survive. Larger animals, in particular, are often at greater risk during such events. This is because they require more resources, reproduce more slowly, and are less able to adapt quickly to changing environments.

For example, around 10,000 years ago, iconic species like giant sloths, mastodons, and sabre-toothed tigers vanished from Earth. Their extinction is often linked to a combination of climate changes at the end of the Ice Age and the growing presence of humans, who hunted them and altered their habitats. These massive creatures simply couldn’t adapt fast enough to outcompete both nature’s challenges and human expansion.

Looking back at these extinctions, it’s clear that nature has a way of “reshuffling the deck” after such dramatic losses, creating space for new species to evolve. However, these events also remind us how fragile ecosystems can be – and how important it is to understand the causes of past extinctions to protect the species we share the planet with today.

Mass extinctions represent some of the most transformative and catastrophic events in Earth’s history. They act as both endpoints and new beginnings – moments when life on the planet experiences profound loss, yet, over time, reconfigures itself in astonishing ways. From the decimation of the trilobite-dominated ecosystems in the Permian extinction to the fall of the dinosaurs in the Cretaceous-Paleogene event, these moments are both humbling and illuminating, teaching us about the fragility and resilience of life.

The study of mass extinctions is not merely an exercise in understanding the distant past. It is a lens through which we can view the interconnectedness of species, ecosystems, and the planet’s systems, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. These connections sustain life, and their disruption – whether due to volcanic eruptions, asteroid impacts, or human activities can trigger cascading effects that fundamentally alter the balance of life on Earth.

Today, the possibility of a sixth mass extinction looms large, driven not by natural phenomena but by human activity. Habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, and overexploitation of resources are placing immense pressure on biodiversity. Unlike past mass extinctions, where species loss was largely beyond the control of any single agent, the current crisis is anthropogenic rooted in choices made by humanity. This shift underscores a profound responsibility: we are not merely witnesses to this extinction event; we are participants with the capacity to either accelerate or mitigate its effects.

The historical record of mass extinctions offers valuable lessons. It highlights the critical importance of biodiversity in maintaining ecological stability and resilience. It underscores the speed with which catastrophic changes can unfold and the slow, painstaking recovery that follows. And it provides a stark warning: species and ecosystems are not infinitely adaptable. There are thresholds beyond which recovery is either impossible or takes millions of years – timescales far beyond human comprehension.

Yet, there is hope. Unlike other species that have gone extinct, humans possess the unique ability to reflect, learn, and act. By studying past extinctions, we can identify warning signs and develop strategies to prevent a crisis. Efforts to conserve biodiversity, restore degraded ecosystems, transition to sustainable energy sources, and mitigate climate change are all ways to steer the planet away from ecological collapse.

Importantly, these efforts must be global, interdisciplinary, and inclusive, recognising that the survival of countless species including our own depends on the choices we make now. Mass extinctions are reminders of both the power and vulnerability of life. They reveal the delicate interplay of environmental, biological, and even cosmic forces that shape Earth’s history. By understanding these events, we gain not only insights into the past but also a roadmap for the future. The challenge before us is immense, but so is the opportunity: to ensure that we are not merely the architects of destruction but also the stewards of a living, thriving planet.

Let me finish with a few words about geoengineering. To stabilise global climates, it is essential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions – there’s simply no alternative. However, what if these measures are insufficient? What if the timeframe for such reductions is impractical or even more daunting? What if we are so far behind that eliminating carbon emissions entirely, starting tomorrow, we would still fall short? This is where solar geoengineering comes into play. The concept is straightforward: cool the Earth by increasing the amount of sunlight reflected back into space. The main method involves injecting particles into the upper atmosphere, which paradoxically could mean more pollution, not less. If that prospect doesn’t seem alarming, it ought to. However, there are numerous risks and uncertainties involved, including unforeseen consequences such as regional climate disruptions or ecological imbalances.

It is perfectly legitimate to worry that geoengineering or climate engineering[21] might be employed merely to perpetuate existing conditions, but could there be a different future post-geoengineering? Could these techniques and practices serve as tools for restoration aimed at reducing carbon levels to those of the pre-industrial era? Might there be ways to undertake substantial, deliberate interventions in our climate that are democratic, decentralised, and involve public participation? Is it conceivable to envision a scenario in which the public can shape and implement geoengineering on their own terms? While the answers to these questions remain elusive, what is certain is humankind’s collective capacity to innovate, adapt, and collaborate to safeguard the planet for future generations.



Sources and Further Reading

Books

NOTICE: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Some content, including image generation and data synthesis, was assisted by artificial intelligence, but all findings were reviewed and verified by us (the author and publisher). Neither we (the publisher and author) nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee regarding the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors, and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements. You should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.


End Notes and Explanations
  1. Source: Compiled from my research using information available at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com. Text used includes that on Wikipedia websites is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using those websites, I have agreed to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organisation. ↑
  2. Explanation: Joseph Fourier was a French mathematician and physicist born in 1768 and best known for initiating the investigation of the Fourier series and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations. The Fourier transform, and Fourier’s Law are also named in his honour. Fourier’s work in thermodynamics led him to study heat flow, where he formulated a law describing heat conduction, now known as Fourier’s Law. One of his most significant contributions, particularly relevant to climate science, was his 1824 work where he described the Earth’s atmosphere as acting like an insulator, akin to a greenhouse, though he didn’t use this exact terminology. His hypothesis was among the first to suggest that the Earth’s atmosphere could trap heat, leading to what is now known as the greenhouse effect, a foundational concept in the understanding of climate change. Fourier’s theories laid the groundwork for later scientists to build upon and refine our understanding of atmospheric sciences. See more at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fourier ↑
  3. Explanation: John Tyndall was an influential 19th century Irish physicist whose research significantly contributed to our understanding of the natural sciences, including the behaviour of light and sound and the process of atmospheric radiation, which underpins the greenhouse effect. Born in 1820, Tyndall studied initially in Ireland and later in Germany, where he developed a strong foundation in experimental science. He is best known for his work on the scattering of light by particles in the atmosphere, a phenomenon now called the Tyndall effect, which explains why the sky appears blue. In the field of atmospheric science, Tyndall’s experiments during the 1850s and 1860s were pivotal. He was the first to prove that water vapour and other gases (like carbon dioxide and methane) could absorb and transmit infrared radiation. These findings were crucial for the development of the theory of the greenhouse effect, establishing the scientific basis for understanding global warming. Tyndall was also a prominent science communicator known for his ability to engage public audiences. He wrote extensively and gave many lectures, making science accessible and exciting to the general public. His legacy includes not only his scientific contributions but also his efforts in promoting science education and communication. See more at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndall ↑
  4. Further Information: My paper about the fascinating world of Neolithic sites in Turkey offers an overview of their historical significance, cultural developments, and architectural achievements. These ancient settlements provide a window into the early stages of human civilisation, with invaluable insights into our ancestors’ lives, beliefs, and accomplishments. See: https://martinpollins.com/2023/11/14/turkeys-neolithic-past-a-journey-into-their-ancient-civilisation/ ↑
  5. Information: You can read the BBC article at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qvqx5y01o ↑
  6. Information: You can read the BBC article at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c93qvqx5y01o ↑
  7. Explanation: The Roots & Shoots programme, founded by Dr. Jane Goodall in 1991, is a global youth-led initiative that empowers young people to engage in positive change for the environment, animals, and human communities. The programme focuses on fostering a sense of responsibility and encouraging young people to take action in their local areas to address global challenges. Roots & Shoots operates with three core pillars:
    Care for the Environment: Activities that promote sustainability and conservation, such as tree planting and habitat restoration.
    Care for Animals: Projects that protect wildlife and advocate for animal welfare.
    Care for Communities: Efforts to improve social well-being, such as addressing inequality or promoting education.The initiative operates in over 60 countries, involving schools, community groups, and individuals in grassroots projects that connect local action to global environmental and social goals. Its name symbolises hope and growth, reflecting how small actions can lead to significant positive change, much like the roots and shoots of a growing tree. For more details, visit the website at: https://www.rootsnshoots.org.uk/ ↑
  8. Explanation: You can read more about it at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Ordovician_mass_extinction ↑
  9. Explanation: The term genera is the plural form of genus, which is a rank in the biological classification system, or taxonomy, that is used to group species. A genus comprises one or more species that are closely related and share a common ancestor. For example, the genus Canis includes species such as the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris), the wolf (Canis lupus), and the coyote (Canis latrans). ↑
  10. Explanation: You can read more about it at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction ↑
  11. Explanation: Anoxia refers to a condition where there is an absence of oxygen supply to an organ’s tissues despite adequate blood flow to the tissue. This can occur in any environment where oxygen is depleted from the atmosphere or in bodily conditions where oxygen fails to reach tissues effectively. Anoxia can cause severe complications because most organisms, especially complex ones like humans, rely on oxygen for metabolic processes. In environmental science, anoxic conditions in aquatic environments can lead to significant ecological disturbances, such as the death of marine life and the alteration of ecosystems. This is often caused by excessive nutrients (often from pollution), which can lead to a proliferation of algae that deplete oxygen levels. ↑
  12. Explanation: You can read more about it at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event ↑
  13. Explanation: You can read more about it at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event ↑
  14. Explanation: You can read more about it at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event ↑
  15. Explanation: The Chicxulub crater is a massive impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. It is the result of a colossal asteroid or comet impact that occurred approximately 66 million years ago. This impact is widely accepted as the primary cause of the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event, which led to the mass extinction of about 75% of the Earth’s species, including all non-avian dinosaurs. The crater itself is more than 180 kilometres (112 miles) in diameter, making it one of the largest impact craters on Earth. It was discovered in the late 1970s through geophysical data that indicated a circular structure in the subsurface. Further evidence supporting the impact theory came from findings of a unique layer of sediment around the world at the K-Pg boundary, rich in iridium—a rare element on Earth’s crust but common in asteroids. The impact would have released an enormous amount of energy, leading to fires, tsunamis, and a “nuclear winter” scenario with a drastic short-term global cooling effect. This catastrophic climate change likely disrupted ecosystems worldwide, making it difficult for many species to survive. Research and exploration of the Chicxulub crater continue to provide critical insights into the effects of impact events on Earth and the dynamics of mass extinctions. You can read more about it at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub_crater ↑
  16. Explanation: Professor Klaus Lackner and his team at Arizona State University (ASU) developed the MechanicalTree™ technology. To bring this innovation to market, ASU partnered with Carbon Collect Limited, an Irish company based in Dublin, Ireland. Carbon Collect holds exclusive global rights to the key innovations developed by Professor Lackner at ASU. This collaboration allows Carbon Collect to commercialise the MechanicalTree™ technology, leveraging ASU’s research while facilitating its deployment and scaling in the global market. ↑
  17. Further Information: see https://www.weforum.org/stories/2020/06/direct-air-capture-co2-environment-climate/ ↑
  18. Source: https://news.berkeley.edu/2024/10/23/capturing-carbon-from-the-air-just-got-easier/ ↑
  19. Explanation: Albedo refers to the measure of how much sunlight or solar radiation a surface reflects back into space. It is a key concept in climate science, as surfaces with high albedo, such as snow or ice, reflect most of the sunlight, helping to cool the planet. Conversely, surfaces with low albedo, like oceans or forests, absorb more sunlight, contributing to warming. Enhancing the albedo of clouds through techniques like marine cloud brightening can increase their reflectivity, reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed by the Earth. ↑
  20. Reference: See https://www.economist.com/babbage/2011/02/11/the-difference-engine-the-sunbeam-solution ↑
  21. Explanation and Further Information: Climate engineering (or geoengineering) is the intentional large-scale alteration of the planetary environment to counteract anthropogenic climate change. The term has been used as an umbrella term for both carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation modification when applied at a planetary scale. However, these two processes have very different characteristics and are now often discussed separately. Carbon dioxide removal techniques remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and are part of climate change mitigation. Solar radiation modification is the reflection of some sunlight (solar radiation) back into space to cool the Earth. Some publications include passive radiative cooling as a climate engineering technology. The media tends to also use climate engineering for other technologies such as glacier stabilisation, ocean liming, and iron fertilisation of oceans. The latter would modify carbon sequestration processes that take place in oceans. Some types of climate engineering are highly controversial due to the large uncertainties around effectiveness, side effects and unforeseen consequences. Interventions at large scale run a greater risk of unintended disruptions of natural systems, resulting in a dilemma that such disruptions might be more damaging than the climate damage that they offset. However, the counter-argument is that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of the trajectory of climate change without them. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_engineering ↑

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Martin Pollins

Martin Pollins is a Chartered Accountant and MBA with wide experience in corporate finance and business management. He has served on the boards of several companies, including those listed on the London Stock Exchange, AIM and OFEX. He is the Chairman and Founder of OneSmartPlace and was a Council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1988 to 1996. He was managing partner of PRB Martin Pollins, based in Sussex, the first Accountancy firm to advertise on British television. He went on to create and launch the CharterGroup Partnership (the UK’s first Accountancy network) and then LawGroup UK (at the time, one of the largest networks of lawyers in the UK). In recent years, he helped to raise several £millions to fund British films such as The Da Vinci Code, Bridge of San Luis Rey, Head in the Clouds and Merchant of Venice with actors such as Charlize Theron, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, F. Murray Abraham. Kathy Bates, Gabriel Byrne, Geraldine Chaplin, Tom Hanks, Ian McKellen, Audrey Tautou, Penélope Cruz, Steven Berkoff, Lynn Collins, Jeremy Irons, Joseph Fiennes and many more. He has written several business publications (see https://onesmartplace.com/resources/)

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