Overview of the Story^[1]

The Story of Sinuhe is an ancient Egyptian literary text that tells the story of a man named Sinuhe, an official in the court of Pharaoh Amenemhat I during the 12^th Dynasty of Egypt (1991-1802 BC). The story begins with Sinuhe fleeing Egypt after the assassination of Amenemhat I. He travels to the neighbouring kingdom of Retjenu (modern-day Palestine or Syria) and becomes an advisor to its ruler. He joins a Bedouin tribe to the east and starts a new life near Syria. Sinuhe falls in love with a woman named Innofre, marries her, and has children with her.

However, Sinuhe eventually becomes homesick and decides to return to Egypt. He sends a letter to the new Pharaoh, Senusret I, expressing his desire to return and requesting a pardon for his flight from Egypt. Senusret I welcomes Sinuhe back to Egypt and restores his position at the court.

The rest of the story follows Sinuhe’s life in Egypt and eventual death. Sinuhe rose in the court and became a trusted advisor to the Pharaoh. He also had several children with an Egyptian woman named Merit. In the end, Sinuhe dies peacefully and is buried with honour.

Caption: raised-relief depiction of Amenemhat I accompanied by deities; the death of Amenemhat I is reported by his son Senusret I in the Story of Sinuhe.
Attribution: tutincommon (John Campana), CC BY 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Funerary_relief_of_Amenemhet_I_from_El-Lisht_by_John_Campana.jpg

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.

The Story of Sinuhe is an important work of literature because it provides insights into the social and political climate of ancient Egypt during the 12^th Dynasty. It also sheds light on the Egyptian view of death and the afterlife, as well as their conception of loyalty and duty to the Pharaoh.

The Story of Sinuhe is one of the best-preserved and most complete examples of ancient Egyptian literature. It was written in the Middle Egyptian language on a papyrus scroll, discovered in the tomb of a scribe named Khuuty at Thebes in 1858. The text is written as a narrative poem and includes detailed descriptions of the Egyptian landscape, customs, and traditions. It provides a valuable source of information about Egyptian history and culture, as well as insights into the literary techniques and conventions of ancient Egyptian literature.

The story is also notable for its exploration of themes such as exile, identity, and the role of the individual in society. Sinuhe is a complex and multifaceted character, torn between his loyalty to Egypt and his desire for personal freedom and happiness. His experiences reflect the challenges and dilemmas faced by many individuals in ancient Egyptian society. The story has been widely studied and analysed by scholars of ancient Egyptian literature and history and has inspired numerous artistic and cultural works, including operas, ballets, and films.

Considered one of the finest examples of Ancient Egyptian literature, “The Story of Sinuhe” is a narrative that takes place after the death of Pharaoh Amenemhat I, the founder of the 12^th Dynasty of Egypt in the early 20^th century BC. Although the earliest manuscript dates back to the reign of Amenemhat III, circa. 1800 BC, it is believed that the work was likely composed shortly after Amenemhat I’s death. While there is an ongoing debate among Egyptologists as to whether the tale is based on actual events involving an individual named Sinuhe, it is widely accepted that the work is a work of fiction. The themes explored in “Sinuhe,” including divine providence and mercy, are universal, and the anonymous author has been referred to as the “Egyptian Shakespeare” with parallels to biblical texts. The work is believed to have been written in verse and may have been performed, as evidenced by the numerous surviving fragments that attest to its great popularity.^[2]

In this context, divine providence is the belief that a higher power or deity controls the events and outcomes of human life. In the Story of Sinuhe, the idea of divine providence is reflected in the role of the gods in shaping the events of the story, as well as in Sinuhe’s own beliefs about the role of fate and destiny in his life. Mercy, on the other hand, is the act of showing compassion and forgiveness to someone who has wronged you or others. In the Story of Sinuhe, the theme of mercy is explored through the actions of both Sinuhe and the Pharaoh, who show mercy to each other despite their past conflicts.

The comparison of the author of the Story of Sinuhe to Shakespeare is based on the richness and complexity of the story, as well as the author’s skilful use of language and storytelling techniques. Like Shakespeare, the author of The Story of Sinuhe is anonymous, but their work has had a lasting impact on literature and culture.

There are several parallels between the themes and motifs of the Story of Sinuhe and those found in biblical texts. For example, the theme of exile is present in both the Story of Sinuhe and the biblical story of Joseph, who was sold into slavery in Egypt. The idea of divine providence is also present in both stories, as both Sinuhe and Joseph believe their lives are shaped by a higher power. Additionally, the theme of loyalty to a ruler or leader is present in both stories, as Sinuhe is loyal to the Pharaoh, and Joseph is loyal to the biblical figure of Potiphar^[3]. These parallels suggest that the themes explored in the Story of Sinuhe are not unique to ancient Egyptian culture but have broader cultural and religious significance.

History and Cultural Significance
The 12^th Dynasty of Egypt was a time of great prosperity and stability. It followed the First Intermediate Period^[4], a time of political chaos and economic decline, and was marked by a resurgence of central authority and the restoration of the royal court at Memphis.

The 12^th Dynasty saw significant advances in art, architecture, and literature, including constructing monumental tombs and temples, developing Middle Egyptian as a literary language, and creating works such as the Story of Sinuhe.

The 11^th Dynasty preceded the 12^th Dynasty and was marked by a series of weak and short-lived kings. The 13^th Dynasty followed the 12^th Dynasty and saw a decline in central authority and the emergence of regional power centres.

The social and political situation during the 12^th Dynasty was characterised by a strong central authority, with the Pharaoh at the head of a complex bureaucracy and a highly stratified society. The economy was based on agriculture, with the Nile River providing a fertile strip of land for farming. The themes and motifs of the Story of Sinuhe reflect the values, beliefs, and social structures of this society, including loyalty to the Pharaoh, the importance of family and kinship ties, and the tensions between personal desire and duty to the state.

The Story of Sinuhe has been interpreted and reinterpreted in various ways over the centuries. In ancient times, it was likely performed as part of oral storytelling traditions and may have had religious or political significance. In modern times, it has been translated into multiple languages and adapted into various forms of media, including opera, ballet, and film. These adaptations reflect different cultural and historical contexts and offer new interpretations and insights into the story. The work was so popular within Egypt that newer copies have been found ranging up to 750 years after the original.^[5]

Regarding background information on the 12^th Dynasty, it lasted from around 1991 to 1802 BC and was marked by a strong central authority, significant advances in art, architecture, and literature, and a complex bureaucracy. The society was highly stratified, with the Pharaoh at the top of a hierarchical system and the common people largely engaged in agriculture. The story of Sinuhe reflects these values, beliefs, and social structures through its portrayal of the court of the Pharaoh, the importance of kinship ties, and the tensions between personal desire and duty to the state.

Lost but Found
As previously mentioned, the Story of Sinuhe was discovered in 1858 AD in the tomb of a scribe named Khuuty at Thebes (modern-day Luxor, Egypt). The papyrus scroll was found by the French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, who was excavating the site at the time. The text was in relatively good condition and has since become one of the best-preserved and most complete examples of ancient Egyptian literature.

The text on the papyrus is known as Hieratic, a simpler and faster method for writing larger works of literature, administrative, and religious texts than Middle Egyptian Hieroglyph. Hieratic is the name given to a cursive writing system used for Ancient Egyptian texts and the principal script used to write that language from its development in the third millennium BC until the rise of Demotic^[6] in the mid-first millennium BC. It was primarily written in ink with a reed pen on papyrus.^[7]

One of the oldest versions of this text was found by James Edward Quibell in an expedition to western Thebes in 1896. The excavation took place in several Middle Kingdom tombs found in the back of the Ramesseum. Here, Quibell found various fragments of papyri, later named the Ramesseum papyri.^[8] Many of these were of a medicinal subject matter, but literary texts have also been found, including the Story of Sinuhe.^[9]­­­

Symbolism and Allegory

Caption: “File:Funerary text, Egypt, hieratic script, Third Intermediate Period, 1069-664 BC, linen with ink – Albany Institute of History and Art – DSC08195.JPG” by Daderot is marked with CC0 1.0.

The Story of Sinuhe is rich in symbolism and allegory, with elements such as the Nile River, the Desert, and the Pharaoh representing deeper meanings and themes:

• The Nile River: The Nile River is a prominent symbol in the Story of Sinuhe, representing both life and death. It is described as a life-giving force that sustains the people of Egypt, but it is also associated with danger and the unknown. Sinuhe’s flight from Egypt takes him across the Nile, symbolising his journey into the unknown and his separation from his homeland. Later in the story, the Nile is again associated with death, as Sinuhe laments the passing of his friend and fellow courtier.
• The Desert: The desert is another important symbol in the story, representing both danger and opportunity. For Sinuhe, the desert represents his exile and separation from Egypt, but it also provides him with a chance to start a new life in Retjenu^[10]. Later in the story, the desert becomes a symbol of death as Sinuhe reflects on the transience of life and the inevitability of his own mortality.

NOTE: The Text of The Tale of Sinuhe (Translated by Alan H. Gardiner (1916)) is available online at: http://www.editoreric.com/greatlit/books/Tale-of-Sinuhe-text.html

• The Pharaoh: The Pharaoh is a complex symbol in the Story of Sinuhe, representing both power and vulnerability. Sinuhe’s loyalty to the Pharaoh is a central theme of the story, reflecting the importance of obedience and duty in ancient Egyptian society. However, the Pharaoh is also depicted as a mortal ruler who is subject to the whims of fate and the limitations of human existence.

These symbols have broader cultural and religious associations in ancient Egypt. The Nile River was considered a sacred source of life, associated with the goddess Isis and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The desert was associated with the god Set, who was both feared and revered as a symbol of chaos and renewal. The Pharaoh was seen as a divine ruler, with a direct connection to the gods and responsibility for maintaining Ma’at, the cosmic order.

The use of symbolism and allegory in the Story of Sinuhe reflects the complex worldview of ancient Egyptian society, with its emphasis on the cyclical nature of life, the power of the gods, and the importance of duty and loyalty. By exploring these themes through symbolic imagery, the story offers a deeper understanding of the cultural and religious beliefs of the time.

Reception and Legacy
The Story of Sinuhe has had a significant impact on Egyptian literature and culture, as well as on later works of literature and art:

• Ancient Reception and Legacy: The Story of Sinuhe was likely performed as part of oral storytelling traditions in ancient Egypt, and it may have had religious or political significance. Its themes of exile, loyalty, and duty to the state would have resonated with ancient Egyptian audiences, and its portrayal of the Pharaoh as a divine ruler would have reinforced the king’s legitimacy.
• Modern Reception and Legacy: In modern times, the Story of Sinuhe has been widely read and studied by scholars of ancient Egyptian literature and history. Its influence can be seen in later works of literature, such as the biblical story of Joseph, which shares similar themes of exile and loyalty. The story has also inspired numerous artistic and cultural works, including operas, ballets, and films.
• Adaptations and Reinterpretations: The Story of Sinuhe has been adapted and reinterpreted in various ways over time, reflecting different cultural and historical contexts. For example, in the Islamic era, the story was often interpreted as a moral fable, with Sinuhe representing the individual soul and the Pharaoh representing God. In modern times, adaptations of the story have focused on themes of identity, exile, and personal freedom, reflecting contemporary concerns.

These adaptations offer insights into different cultural and historical contexts and demonstrate the lasting impact and significance of the Story of Sinuhe. By reinterpreting the story in new ways, artists and writers continue to engage with its themes and motifs, creating a sense of continuity and connection across different times and places.

Literary Analysis
The Story of Sinuhe was written in a poetic form known as “prose poetry,” which combines prose and verse elements. This means that it is written in a prose style but with poetic language, using techniques such as repetition, rhythm, and parallelism.

Repetition is a common technique used in the Story of Sinuhe to emphasise certain themes and motifs. For example, the phrase “I fled to save my life” is repeated several times throughout the story, underscoring the importance of exile and flight as central themes. Similarly, the repetition of phrases such as “my lord the Pharaoh” and “the royal house” stresses the importance of loyalty and duty to the state.

Imagery and metaphor are also used extensively in the Story of Sinuhe. For example, the Nile River is described in vivid detail, with its flowing waters and fertile banks representing both life and death. Similarly, the desert is portrayed as a harsh and unforgiving landscape, symbolising the challenges and dangers of exile.

Parallelism is another technique used in the Story of Sinuhe, with repeated phrases and structures creating a sense of symmetry and balance. For example, the opening lines of the story repeat the phrase, “I was a follower of the lord of peace,” creating a sense of poetic symmetry and setting up the theme of loyalty to the Pharaoh.

All these techniques contribute to the themes and motifs of the story by creating a sense of rhythm and repetition that reinforces the central ideas of loyalty, duty, and exile. Using poetic language also elevates the story beyond a simple narrative, imbuing it with a sense of artistic beauty and complexity.

The combination of prose and verse in the form of prose poetry allows for a unique and dynamic form of storytelling, which contributes to the lasting impact and significance of the Story of Sinuhe in Egyptian literature and culture.

Themes and Motifs
The Story of Sinuhe explores several major themes and motifs, including exile, identity, loyalty, and duty. Here’s a closer look at each theme and how it is developed throughout the narrative:

• Exile: Exile is a central theme in the Story of Sinuhe, as the protagonist is forced to flee Egypt after the assassination of the Pharaoh. Sinuhe’s exile is a metaphor for the challenges and opportunities of life as he struggles to adapt to a new culture and make a new life for himself. The desert landscape and the Nile River represent the duality of life and death, reflecting Sinuhe’s journey into the unknown.
• Identity: Identity is another important theme in the Story of Sinuhe, as the protagonist struggles to reconcile his loyalty to Egypt with his desire for personal freedom and happiness. Sinuhe’s changing identities reflect the tension between personal desire and duty to the state, as well as the complexity of individual identity in a highly stratified society.

The theme of identity is also reflected in the multiple names that Sinuhe adopts throughout the story, each reflecting a different aspect of his personality and experience.

• Loyalty: Loyalty to the Pharaoh is a central value in ancient Egyptian society, and it is a major theme in the Story of Sinuhe. Sinuhe’s loyalty to the Pharaoh reflects the importance of obedience and duty in ancient Egyptian culture, as well as the ideal of the king as a divine ruler. The theme of loyalty is also reflected in Sinuhe’s relationships with other characters, such as his loyal friend Horemheb.
• Duty: Duty to the state is another important theme in the Story of Sinuhe, as the protagonist struggles to balance his personal desires with his obligations as a courtier. Sinuhe’s ultimate return to Egypt and his restoration to the court reflect the importance of duty and loyalty in ancient Egyptian culture, as well as the idea that the individual’s fate is tied to the fate of the state.

Taken together, these themes offer insights into ancient Egyptian culture and society, including the importance of loyalty and duty, the complexity of individual identity, and the challenges of life in a highly stratified society. The Story of Sinuhe provides a nuanced exploration of these themes, offering a rich and complex view of ancient Egyptian life and values.

Caption: Relief of Amenemhat I from his pyramid complex at El-Lisht
Attribution: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lintel_of_Amenemhat_I_and_Deities_MET_DP322055.jpg

Conclusion
In conclusion, the Story of Sinuhe is an important and well-preserved example of ancient Egyptian literature, offering valuable insights into the social, political, and cultural climate of Egypt’s 12^th Dynasty. The story’s exploration of themes such as exile, identity, loyalty, and duty reflects the complexities of ancient Egyptian society and offers a nuanced perspective on the challenges and dilemmas faced by individuals of the time. Through its use of poetic language, repetition, and imagery, the Story of Sinuhe elevates storytelling to an art form, showcasing the sophistication and beauty of ancient Egyptian literature. The story’s enduring legacy and continued relevance, as evidenced by its adaptations and reinterpretations over time, demonstrate the lasting impact and significance of this ancient work of literature.

Sources and Further Reading

• http://www.editoreric.com/greatlit/books/Tale-of-Sinuhe-text.html
• https://ancientegypt.fandom.com/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe
• https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/storysinuhe/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenemhat_I
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenemhat_III
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Mariette
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potiphar
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retjenu
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(deity)
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt
• https://mjn.host.cs.st-andrews.ac.uk/egyptian/texts/corpus/pdf/Sinuhe.pdf
• https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=oerhistory-all
• https://www.academia.edu/14854379/The_Tale_of_Sinuhe_History_of_a_Literary_Text
• https://www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-ancient-writings/story-sinuhe-0018407
• https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b041ybj3
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sinuhe
• https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/middle-egyptian-literature/story-of-sinuhe/08F76C6608BB11841FE08166632BC2CB
• https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/story-sinuhe
• https://www.gradesaver.com/the-story-of-sinuhe/study-guide/summary
• https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/591471
• https://www.worldhistory.org/article/886/the-tale-of-sinuhe/

Books:

• The Tale of Sinuhe: And Other Ancient Egyptian Poems 1940-1640 B.C. (Oxford World’s Classics), Paperback, by R. B. Parkinson (Translator), 26 Mar. 2009, published by OUP Oxford, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Tale-Sinuhe-Oxford-Worlds-Classics/dp/0199555621
• Tale of Sinuhe, Kindle, by Scriptural Research Institute, published by Digital Ink Productions 18 Oct 2021, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Tale-Sinuhe-Scriptural-Research-Institute-ebook/dp/B09JSXW4M8/
• The Tale of Sinuhe, Paperback, Translated by R. B. Parkinson, published by Oxford University Press, 15 May 2009, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Tale-Sinuhe-Translated-Parkinson-2009/dp/B00QATCOGS/
• Notes on the Story of Sinuhe, Paperback, by Alan H. Gardiner, published by Wipf and Stock (15 Jun. 2022), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Notes-Story-Sinuhe-Alan-Gardiner/dp/1666749796/

Videos etc.:

• Ancient Egyptian poetry: The Tale of Sinuhe, at: https://youtu.be/SpxVxa0ex-Y
• The Life of Sinuhe (Podcast), at: https://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/life-sinuhe
• The Tale of Sinuhe (BBC Audio), at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/b041ybj3

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End Notes and Explanations

1. Source: Compiled from research using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
2. Source: https://ancientegypt.fandom.com/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe ↑
3. Explanation: Potiphar, lit. ‘he whom Ra gave’ is a figure in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran. His name possibly indicates the same figure as Potiphera. Potiphar is the captain of Pharaoh’s guard who is said to have purchased Joseph as a slave and, impressed by his intelligence, makes him the master of his household. Potiphar’s wife, who was known for her infidelities, took a liking to Joseph and attempted to seduce him. When Joseph refused her advances, and ran off, leaving his outer vestment in her hands, she retaliated by falsely accusing him of trying to rape her, and Potiphar had Joseph imprisoned. What happened to Potiphar after that is unclear; some sources identify him as Potipherah, an Egyptian priest whose daughter, Asenath, marries Joseph.  The false accusation by Potiphar’s wife plays an important role in Joseph’s narrative, because had he not been imprisoned, he would not have met the fellow prisoner who introduced him to Pharaoh. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potiphar ↑
4. Explanation: The First Intermediate Period, described as a ‘dark period’ in ancient Egyptian history, spanned approximately 125 years, c. 2181–2055 BC, after the end of the Old Kingdom. It comprises the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, and part of the Eleventh Dynasties. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt ↑
5. Source:  Parkinson, R.B. (1999). The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian Poems. Oxford World’s Classics. pp. 21–27. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe ↑
6. Explanation: Demotic is the ancient Egyptian script derived from northern forms of hieratic used in the Nile Delta. The term was first used by the Greek historian Herodotus to distinguish it from hieratic and hieroglyphic scripts. By convention, the word “Demotic” is capitalised in order to distinguish it from demotic Greek. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian) ↑
7. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieratic ↑
8. Source: Gardiner, Alan (1955). The Ramesseum Papyri Plates. Oxford University Press. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe ↑
9. Source: “papyrus | British Museum”. The British Museum. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Story_of_Sinuhe ↑
10. Explanation: Retjenu was an ancient Egyptian name for Canaan and Syria. It covered the region from the Negev Desert north to the Orontes River. The borders of Retjenu shifted with time, but it generally consisted of three regions. The southernmost was Djahy, which had about the same boundaries as Canaan. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retjenu ↑