Introduction^[1]
Who was the man with these impressive titles? “By the grace of God, Emperor of Austria; Apostolic King of Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria, and Illyria; King of Jerusalem, Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany and Cracow; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Bukovina; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Upper and Lower Silesia, Modena, Parma and Piacenza, Auschwitz, Zator, Teschen, Friuli, and Guastalla; Prince of Trent and Brixen; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria; Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg, Gorizia, Gradisca, and the Windic March; Lord of Trieste, Cattaro, and the Wendish Mark.”

He was Francis II^[2] (aka Franz Joseph), the last Holy Roman Emperor and the first Emperor of Austria. He held many titles and ruled over a vast and diverse empire, including parts of central and eastern Europe.

Image and Source: Painting of Francis II at the age of 25^[3]

As if the list above weren’t enough, there were several additional titles that Francis II held during his reign:

• King of Lombardy-Venetia: In 1815, Francis II established the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, a part of the Austrian Empire. He served as its king until 1848.
• King of Bohemia and Hungary: Francis II held the titles of King of Bohemia and King of Hungary, two of the most important kingdoms within the Habsburg Empire.
• King of Croatia and Slavonia: Croatia and Slavonia were two territories closely tied to Hungary and a part of the Habsburg Empire.
• Duke of Milan, Mantua, and Modena: territories in northern Italy where the Habsburgs ruled during Francis II’s reign.
• Duke of Luxembourg: a duchy closely tied to the Habsburgs and ruled by various dynasty members over the centuries.
• Duke of Brabant, Limburg, and Luxembourg: These were territories in the Low Countries (present-day Belgium and the Netherlands) that were part of the Habsburg Empire during Francis II’s reign.
• Sovereign of the Order of the Golden Fleece: a prestigious chivalric order founded in the 15^th century and closely associated with the Habsburgs.
• Prince-Elector of Salzburg: Salzburg was a principality within the Habsburg Empire, and the prince-electors of Salzburg were responsible for electing the Holy Roman Emperor.
• Prince of the Holy Roman Empire: a title traditionally held by the ruler of Austria and other territories within the Habsburg Empire.
• Grand Master of the Teutonic Order: The Order was a medieval chivalric order that played an important role in the Crusades and had extensive holdings in eastern Europe. Francis II served as its grand master from 1804 until 1806, when the order was dissolved.
• Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine: The Confederation was a group of German states established in 1806, and Francis II served as its protector.
• Protector of the German Confederation: After the dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1813, Francis II became the protector of the newly established German Confederation – a loose association of German states that lasted until the unification of Germany in 1871.

Francis II held these titles during his reign as Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, which lasted from 1792 until 1835. He was born on February 12, 1768, in Florence, Italy, and was the eldest son of Emperor Leopold II and Maria Luisa of Spain.

The Habsburg Dynasty
For centuries, the Habsburgs were one of Europe’s most powerful and influential royal families, becoming prominent in the late Middle Ages, expanding its holdings through marriage alliances, military conquests, and strategic diplomacy. Known for their multi-ethnic empire, elaborate court culture, and strategic marriage alliances, the Habsburgs played a major role in shaping the political, social, and cultural landscape of Europe for several centuries.

The Habsburg dynasty was founded in the 11^th century by Count Radbot of Klettgau, and over the following centuries, it grew in power and influence through a combination of military conquest, diplomatic manoeuvring, and strategic marriages. The Habsburgs ruled over a vast empire that included territories in Central Europe, Italy, Spain, and the Americas, and they presided over a complex and often unwieldy system of governance based on feudal relationships and regional authorities.

Despite their long-standing influence, the Habsburgs were not without their flaws and shortcomings. The family’s system of intermarriage, for example, led to genetic disorders and health problems, while their efforts to maintain control over a diverse and often fractious empire often led to conflict and upheaval.

A quick overview of the Habsburg dynasty, from its origins to its eventual decline, is as follows:

Origins, Early History and the First Holy Roman Emperor
The Habsburg dynasty traces its roots back to the 11^th century when the family was first mentioned as Counts in the Swiss region of Aargau. Over the next few centuries, the Habsburgs expanded their holdings through marriage alliances and military conquests, becoming one of the most powerful noble families in the region.

In 1273, Rudolf I of Habsburg was elected Holy Roman Emperor, marking the beginning of the dynasty’s ascent to royal power.

Expansion and Consolidation
Over the next few centuries, the Habsburgs continued to expand their power and influence throughout central Europe. They established themselves as the rulers of Austria and various other territories, including Bohemia, Hungary, and parts of Italy. They also played a key role in the politics of the Holy Roman Empire, with several members of the dynasty serving as Holy Roman Emperors over the centuries.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation
During the 16^th century, the Protestant Reformation spread throughout Europe, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church and leading to widespread religious and political turmoil. The Habsburgs, who were staunch defenders of Catholicism, were at the forefront of the Counter-Reformation, which sought to reassert Catholic authority and suppress Protestantism. Unsurprisingly, this led to conflicts with Protestant powers, particularly in Germany, and contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War in 1618.

Expansion and Decline
Despite these challenges, the Habsburgs continued to expand their holdings and influence throughout the 17^th and 18^th centuries. They established a vast empire that included much of central Europe, as well as parts of Italy, Spain, and the New World. However, the dynasty faced increasing challenges from nationalist movements, which sought to break away from Habsburg rule and establish independent states. The Habsburgs also faced challenges from other European powers, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars, which saw the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire and the emergence of new political structures in Europe.

The Last Holy Roman Emperor and the End of the Dynasty
Francis II was a member of the Habsburg dynasty and was one of the most important rulers in its history. He was the last Holy Roman Emperor, a title that had been held by various members of the Habsburg family since the 15^th century. Francis II ruled over a vast and diverse empire that included various parts of central and eastern Europe, including Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, and parts of Italy.

In 1803, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by signing the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, which officially redistributed the empire’s territories and abolished many of its institutions without the input or consent of Francis II.

Renunciation
On 6^th August 1806, Francis II formally renounced his title as Holy Roman Emperor in response to the rising power of Napoleon Bonaparte and the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, a coalition of German states that opposed the Habsburgs. This renunciation marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire as a political entity. From that date in 1806, Emperor Francis II abdicated his Imperial title. He released all imperial states and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire. Although the abdication was considered legal, the dissolution of the imperial bonds was not, and several states refused to recognise the end of the empire at the time^[4].

Francis II then established the Empire of Austria and declared himself its first emperor. This was a new political entity that included many of the same territories that had been part of the Holy Roman Empire.

Post-Dissolution of the Old Holy Roman Empire^[5]
After dissolving the old Holy Roman Empire, as Emperor of Austria, Francis II gave Prince Klemens von Metternich almost complete control of foreign affairs after 1809 and devoted himself to the internal administration of the empire. The marriage of his daughter Archduchess Marie Louise to Napoleon Bonaparte in 1810 was part of a political alliance between France and Austria, and it was hoped that it would bring stability to Europe after years of war. It earned three peaceful years in which Francis revived Austrian strength for the campaign that would bring about Napoleon’s downfall. By the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Francis had recovered most of Austria’s lost territory. However, the marriage did not last long, as Napoleon was defeated and exiled to Elba in 1814, and Marie Louise returned to Austria.

Francis took four wives; firstly, in 1788, to Elisabeth of Württemberg; secondly, in 1790, to Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies; thirdly, in 1808, to Maria Ludovica of Austria-Este; and fourthly, in 1816, to Caroline Charlotte Auguste of Bavaria.

Significance
Francis II was significant for several reasons. Francis presided over a period of relative stability and prosperity in the Habsburg Empire, during which the arts and sciences flourished and the economy grew. He also played a key role in the politics of Europe, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars, when he sought to defend his empire against French aggression. He was a conservative ruler who faced challenges from nationalist movements and revolutionary uprisings during his reign, including the Revolutions of 1848. Francis II is remembered as one of the most significant rulers of the Habsburg dynasty and an important figure in European history.

The Habsburg dynasty officially ended in 1918 following the defeat of Austria-Hungary in World War I. The empire was dissolved, and the various territories that had been under the Habsburg rule became independent states. However, the legacy of the Habsburgs continued to influence European politics and culture for decades to come – its expansion and consolidation of power, its defence of Catholicism, and its patronage of the arts and sciences all contributed to the development of European culture and society.

More about Francis II
Francis’ parents were Emperor Leopold II (1747–1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain (1745–1792), daughter of Charles III of Spain. Francis was born on 12^th February 1768 in Florence, the capital of Tuscany, where his father reigned as Grand Duke from 1765–90. Francis became the heir to Joseph II, the Holy Roman Emperor, who was his uncle. Francis was groomed and educated for his future role by his uncle. He became the emperor at the age of 24 after his uncle and his father both died within a span of two years^[6].

• Last Holy Roman Emperor: Francis II was the last Holy Roman Emperor, a position that had existed in various forms since the 10th century. The Holy Roman Empire was a complex political structure that included many territories in central Europe and was closely tied to the Catholic Church. Francis II’s reign marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of a new era of European history.
• Consolidation of the Habsburg Empire: During his reign as Emperor of Austria, Francis II oversaw the consolidation of the Habsburg Empire, which included many territories in central and eastern Europe. He worked to strengthen the central government, promote economic growth, and establish a new legal code for the empire.
• Response to Nationalist Movements: Francis II faced challenges from nationalist movements in various parts of his empire, including Hungary and Italy. He responded with a combination of repression and compromise, attempting to maintain the unity of the empire while also addressing the concerns of various national groups.
• Role in European Politics: As a prominent ruler, Francis II played an important role in European politics and diplomacy. He was involved in various international agreements and alliances and also faced challenges from other European powers, including Napoleon Bonaparte.

Francis Joseph was known for his long reign, which saw significant changes in Europe and the world, including the advent of the Industrial Revolution and the First World War. He was also known for presiding over a diverse and multi-ethnic empire, which presented unique challenges for his administration. Despite these challenges, he remained a powerful and influential monarch throughout his life.

Francis II ruled from the Year of the Revolutions (1848) until he died in 1916. His empire was the most multi-national state ever. An ethnic map of 1910 (see below) shows there were Germans, Magyars, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenes, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Italians, Jews, Muslims, Ladins (in the Tyrol) and Roumanians^[7]. What is more, taken together, the Germans and the Magyars^[8] constituted a minority.

Although Emperor Francis II was a strong and capable ruler who presided over a diverse and multi-ethnic empire, he was also criticised for his inflexibility and resistance to political reform.

Ethno-linguistic map of Austria–Hungary, 1910
Attribution: Andrein, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Austria_Hungary_ethnic.svg

Tragedies
Francis II’s personal life was marked by tragedy, including the execution of his brother Maximilian, the suicide of his son Rudolf and his mistress, the assassination of his nephew and heir Francis-Ferdinand, and the death by stabbing of his wife, Empress Elizabeth.

The Twilight of the Habsburgs
The “twilight of the Habsburgs” is a term used to describe the final years of the Habsburg dynasty’s rule over Austria-Hungary, which coincided with the reign of Emperor Francis Joseph. During this period, the Habsburgs faced increasing challenges to their authority, including the rise of nationalism and calls for greater autonomy from the various ethnic groups within the empire. The Habsburgs also faced a series of crises, including the First World War, which ultimately led to the collapse of their empire and the end of their rule.^[9]

The Habsburgs were known for patronising the arts and sciences, and their court was a centre of European cultural and intellectual life. They were also known for their elaborate and often complicated system of intermarriage, which helped to expand their power and influence but also contributed to genetic disorders and health problems within the family.

Today, the Habsburgs remain a prominent and influential family in Europe, although they no longer rule over any territories. Some family members have been involved in politics, while others have pursued careers in business or the arts.

Review of the Habsburgs and comparison with Other Royal Families
As with any large and influential royal family that ruled for several centuries, there were both good and bad Habsburg rulers. Some members of the Habsburg family were known for their wisdom, leadership, and patronage of the arts and sciences. Others were criticised for their poor governance, cruelty, or incompetence.

As with any long-standing dynasty, the Habsburgs had their share of good and bad rulers, and their legacy was a complex and multifaceted one. For example, Emperor Charles V, who ruled over a vast empire in the 16^th century, was known for his military prowess and support for the arts and humanities. He was also a patron of the Protestant Reformation, which led to a period of religious conflict and upheaval in Europe.

On the other hand, some Habsburg rulers were known for their cruelty or incompetence. For example, Emperor Rudolf II, who ruled in the late 16^th and early 17^th centuries, was known for his erratic behaviour and persecution of witches and other supposed heretics. Another example is Emperor Ferdinand II, who presided over the brutal Thirty Years’ War in the 17^th century, which devastated much of Central Europe and led to the deaths of millions of people.

Comparing the Habsburgs with the British Royals
The Habsburgs were different from the British royal family in many ways. While both families were European monarchies, they had different histories, traditions, and systems of government. The Habsburgs were a multi-ethnic dynasty that ruled over a diverse empire, while the British monarchy has traditionally been associated with the United Kingdom and its former colonies.

The Habsburgs were known for their elaborate court culture, characterised by grandiose ceremonies, elaborate costumes, and strict social hierarchies. The British monarchy, on the other hand, has traditionally been associated with more reserved and understated forms of ceremonial and symbolic expression.

In terms of their political systems, the Habsburgs presided over a complex and often unwieldy system of governance based on a series of feudal relationships between the emperor and various nobles, princes, and other regional authorities, whilst the British monarchy has traditionally been associated with a constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch’s powers are limited by a constitution or other legal document.

Although the Habsburgs and the British monarchy are European royal families with long histories, they have different cultural, political, and historical traditions that set them apart.

Comparing the Habsburgs with Other European Royal Families
Several factors distinguish the Habsburgs from other European royal families, some of the most notable of which are:

• Multi-ethnic empire: The Habsburgs were known for ruling over a vast and diverse empire that included many different ethnic groups and cultures. At various times, the Habsburgs ruled over territories in Central Europe, Spain, Italy, and the Americas.
• Marriage alliances: The Habsburgs were famous for their elaborate intermarriage system, which helped expand their power and influence across Europe. Over the centuries, Habsburg rulers married into many other royal families, including the Bourbons^[10], the Stuarts, and the Wittelsbachs^[11].
• Court culture: The Habsburgs were known for their elaborate and opulent court culture, with grand ceremonies, elaborate costumes, and strict social hierarchies. The Habsburg court was a centre of European cultural and intellectual life, attracting artists, writers, and scientists from across the continent.
• Religious conflict: The Habsburgs presided during a time of religious conflict and upheaval in Europe as they struggled to maintain control over a diverse and often fractious empire. The Habsburgs were involved in a series of religious wars and conflicts, including the Thirty Years’ War, which devastated much of Central Europe.
• Decline and fall: The Habsburgs were one of the most powerful and influential royal families in Europe for several centuries, but their power began to decline in the 19^th century as other European powers rose to prominence. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 marked the end of Habsburg rule and the beginning of a new era in European history.

Distinctive Physical Characteristics and Appearance
The Habsburgs were known for their distinctive physical characteristics and appearance, which were attributed in part to their elaborate system of intermarriage. Over the centuries, many Habsburg rulers and family members had distinct physical features, including:

• Habsburg jaw: This term describes the prominent jawline and overbite common among many Habsburgs. The condition, known medically as mandibular prognathism, was partly caused by the family’s frequent intermarriage.
• Prominent noses: Many Habsburgs had long, prominent noses that were also attributed to their intermarriage and genetic makeup.
• Protruding lower lips: Some Habsburgs had a lower lip that protruded forward, giving their faces a distinctive appearance.
• Short stature: Some Habsburgs were also known for being relatively short in height compared to other European royal families.

However, it is important to note that not all Habsburgs had these physical characteristics – they were a diverse family with a wide range of physical appearances. Furthermore, it is important to remember that physical appearance does not define a person’s character, abilities, or accomplishments.

Final Words
In the end, the legacy of the Habsburgs is a complex and multifaceted one. On the one hand, they were responsible for some of the greatest achievements in European history, including patronising the arts and sciences and establishing a vast and diverse empire. On the other hand, they were also responsible for some of the greatest tragedies and conflicts of the modern era, including the devastation of the Thirty Years’ War and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The Habsburgs remain an important and influential family in Europe today, even though they no longer rule over any territories. Their legacy can be seen in the cultural, political, and historical traditions of many European countries, and their story continues to fascinate and intrigue people around the world. Ultimately, the Habsburgs remind us of the complexity and richness of European history and the enduring legacy of one of its most powerful and influential families.

In the end, the legacy of the Habsburgs is a complex and multifaceted one that continues to shape European history and culture to this day. Despite their decline and fall, the Habsburgs remain a powerful symbol of European royalty and aristocracy, and their story continues to fascinate and inspire people worldwide.

Sources and Further Reading

• http://www.holyromanempireassociation.com/holy-roman-emperor-francis-ii.html
• http://www.holyromanempireassociation.com/list-of-holy-roman-emperors.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg
• https://europeanroyalhistory.wordpress.com/tag/holy-roman-emperor-francis-ii/
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francis-II-Holy-Roman-emperor
• https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG56779
• https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/biographies/francis-ii-i/
• https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/francis-ii-holy-roman-emperor-8127.php

Books:

• Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph Paperback, by Alan Palmer (Author), published by Faber & Faber (2011), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Twilight-Habsburgs-Emperor-Francis-Joseph/dp/057126901X/
• The Habsburgs: The Rise and Fall of a World Power, Paperback, by Martyn Rady, published by Penguin (2022), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Habsburgs-Rise-Fall-World-Power/dp/0141987200/
• The War of the Spanish Succession: The History of the Conflict Between the Bourbons and Habsburgs that Engulfed Europe, by Charles River Editors, Independently published (2019), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/War-Spanish-Succession-Conflict-Habsburgs/dp/1697382975/
• The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty (Dynasties), Paperback, by Benjamin Curtis, published by Bloomsbury Academic (2013), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Habsburgs-Dynasties-Benjamin-Curtis/dp/1441150021/
• The Habsburgs: To Rule the World, Hardcover, by Martyn Rady, published by Basic Books, Illustrated Edition (2020), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Habsburgs-Rule-World-Martyn-Rady/dp/1541644506/
• The Habsburg Empire: A Captivating Guide to the House of Austria and the Impact the Habsburgs had on the Holy Roman Empire (Exploring Europe’s Past), Paperback, by Captivating History (2021), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Habsburg-Empire-Captivating-Austria-Habsburgs/dp/1637162154/
• The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire, Paperback, by A. Wess Mitchell, published by Princeton University Press (2019), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Grand-Strategy-Habsburg-Empire/dp/0691196443/
• The Habsburgs: Dynasty, Culture and Politics, Hardcover, by Paula Sutter Fichtner, published by Reaktion Books (2014), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Habsburgs-Dynasty-Culture-Politics/dp/1780232748/
• Hitler and the Habsburgs: The Führer’s Vendetta Against the Austrian Royals, Paperback, by James McMurtry Longo, published by Diversion Books (2020), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Hitler-Habsburgs-F%C3%BChrers-Vendetta-Austrian/dp/1635766508/
• The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815: 21 (New Approaches to European History, Series Number 21), Paperback, by Charles W. Ingrao, published by Cambridge University Press (2019), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Habsburg-Monarchy-1618-1815-Approaches-European/dp/1108713335/
• The Habsburg Monarchy 1809-1918: A History of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, Paperback, by A J P Taylor, published by Penguin Books (1990), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Habsburg-Monarchy-1809-1918-Austria-Hungary-Paperback/dp/B00IGZ1MWQ/
• A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918, Paperback, by Robert A Kann, published by the University of California Press (1980), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/History-Habsburg-Empire-1526-1918/dp/0520042069/
• The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815-1918, Paperback, by Alan Sked, published by Routledge (2001), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Decline-Habsburg-Empire-1815-1918-Assorted/dp/0582356660/

Films:

• Mayerling (1968) – a French film about the affair between Crown Prince Rudolf and Baroness Mary Vetsera that led to their tragic deaths at Mayerling in 1889.
• Sissi Trilogy (1955-1957) – a series of Austrian films about the life of Empress Elisabeth (“Sissi”), starring Romy Schneider. The films depict her relationship with Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and her struggles adapting to court life’s formalities.
• The Crown Prince (2006) – a German film about the life of Crown Prince Rudolf, starring Max von Thun.
• A Royal Affair (2012) – a Danish film about the love affair between King Christian VII of Denmark and his English queen, Caroline Mathilde, which was partly set in the Habsburg Empire.
• The Young Victoria (2009) – a British film about Queen Victoria’s early reign, which includes a scene where she meets Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.

CAUTION: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Parts of this paper include information provided via artificial intelligence which, although checked by the author, is not always accurate or reliable. Neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements and you should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.

Marble bust of the final Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, in a style inspired by ancient Roman marble busts
Attribution: B Jonas, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wien-khm-kunstkammer-francis1-0.jpg
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.

End Notes and Explanations

1. Source: Compiled from research using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
2. In full, Francis Joseph, but known as Francis II. ↑
3. Image Source ad Description: Painting of Francis II at the age of 25, wearing the Order of the Golden Fleece, with the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire and Hungary’s Crown of Saint Stephen in the background (1792). Attribution: Unidentified painter, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor_at_age_25,_1792.png ↑
4. Source: https://europeanroyalhistory.wordpress.com/tag/holy-roman-emperor-francis-ii/ ↑
5. Source: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG56779 ↑
6. Source: https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/francis-ii-holy-roman-emperor-8127.php ↑
7. Explanation: “Roumanians” is an outdated spelling of “Romanians.” It was used in English texts up until the mid-20^th century, but it has since been replaced by modern spelling. Romanians are an ethnic group and nation that primarily live in Romania and Moldova, as well as in various diaspora communities around the world. The Romanian language is a Romance language, meaning it has its roots in Latin, as do French, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese. ↑
8. Explanation: “Magyars” is an alternative term for Hungarians, and it is derived from the name of the dominant ethnic group that has historically inhabited the region of present-day Hungary. The Hungarian language, which is part of the Finno-Ugric language family, is also known as Magyar. ↑
9. Excerpted from Text promoting Alan Palmer’s book: Twilight of the Habsburgs: The Life and Times of Emperor Francis Joseph (Paperback), published by Faber & Faber (2011), available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Twilight-Habsburgs-Emperor-Francis-Joseph/dp/057126901X/ ↑
10. Explanation: The Bourbons were a European royal dynasty that originated in France and ruled over various territories and countries throughout Europe from the late Middle Ages until the 20th century. The dynasty was founded by Hugh Capet, who became King of France in 987. The Bourbons were known for their lavish lifestyles, patronage of the arts, and support of Catholicism. Some of the most famous Bourbons include King Louis XIV of France, who reigned from 1643 to 1715 and is often referred to as the Sun King; King Louis XVI, who was executed during the French Revolution in 1793; and King Ferdinand VII of Spain, who was a key figure during the Napoleonic Wars. The Bourbons also ruled over other territories and countries, including Spain, Naples, and Sicily. The Spanish branch of the dynasty continues to hold the Spanish throne to this day. The current king of Spain, Felipe VI, is a member of the House of Bourbon and has been on the throne since 2014. The House of Bourbon has a long and storied history in Spain, having ruled the country for much of the modern era, with several notable monarchs such as Philip V, Charles III, and Alfonso XIII. ↑
11. Explanation: The Wittelsbachs were a prominent noble family of Bavaria, a region in southern Germany. The dynasty was founded in the 12^th century by Count Otto I of Scheyern, and over the centuries, the Wittelsbachs rose to become one of the most powerful families in Germany. The Wittelsbachs played a significant role in the politics and history of Bavaria and Germany as a whole. The Wittelsbachs ruled over Bavaria until the end of World War I, when the monarchy was abolished in the aftermath of Germany’s defeat. The family continues to be prominent in Germany and Europe today, with several notable members still active in politics and other fields. Some of the most notable members of the family were (a) Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor: Louis IV was a member of the Wittelsbach family who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He was the first Bavarian to hold the imperial title and played a key role in the politics of Europe during the Middle Ages. (b) Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor: Charles VII was another member of the Wittelsbach family who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1742. He was the last emperor to be crowned in Rome and played a key role in the War of the Austrian Succession. (c) Ludwig I of Bavaria: Ludwig I was the king of Bavaria from 1825 to 1848. He was known for his love of the arts and architecture and played a key role in the development of Munich as a cultural centre. (d) Ludwig II of Bavaria: Ludwig II was the king of Bavaria from 1864 to 1886. He was known for his love of the arts and is often referred to as the “fairy tale king” for his extravagant building projects, such as the famous Neuschwanstein Castle. ↑