Introduction^[1]
The Persepolis Treasury Tablets and Administrative Texts are part of a large collection of ancient Persian cuneiform (see below) texts written between 506 and 497 BC. They are one of the most important sources for studying the administration of the Achaemenid Empire.^[2]

The idea for Persepolis was conceived by Cyrus the Great as early as 515 BC, but it wasn’t until 550 BC that Darius I (aka Darius the Great) commissioned the construction of its iconic palaces and terraces. Despite becoming the official capital of Persia during his reign, Persepolis was rarely used by rulers as it was in a remote location in the Fars Province of Iran, close to the modern city of Shiraz. In 330 BC, Alexander the Great led an invasion of the city, which was still known as Persepolis. After spending five months there, he allowed his troops to loot the city, which was then largely destroyed by fire. From around 316 BC, Persepolis continued to serve as the capital of the Persian Empire, but it was now considered a province of the Macedonian Empire.^[3]

Caption: Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis.
Attribution: Alborzagros, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gate_of_All_Nations,_Persepolis.jpg

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Clarification
The Persepolis Treasury Tablets and The Persepolis Fortification Archive refer to two different collections of ancient clay tablets found at the archaeological site of Persepolis in Iran and are a cornerstone of primary evidence on the Persian Empire (ca. 550–330 BC):

• The Persepolis Treasury Tablets: These tablets were discovered in the Treasury area of the Persian Achaemenid Empire at Persepolis. This suggests they were stored in this location, probably due to their importance in documenting the empire’s economic affairs and financial transactions. They date back to the 5^th century BC and primarily document the administrative and economic activities of the empire. The tablets provide valuable insights into the financial operations, record-keeping, and trade networks of the Achaemenid Empire.
• The Persepolis Fortification Archive: This collection consists of clay tablets discovered in the fortification walls surrounding Persepolis. The tablets date from the same time period as the Treasury Tablets and cover a wide range of subjects, including military affairs, defence strategies, and diplomatic correspondence. They provide valuable historical, political, and military information about the Achaemenid Empire.

The term Persepolis Fortification Archive is commonly used to refer to the collection because the tablets were discovered within the fortification walls of Persepolis. These tablets primarily document administrative activities, including the economic, political, and military affairs of the Achaemenid Empire.

The Persepolis Elamite Tablets were administrative records in Elamite inscribed on clay tablets and are parts of two archives of such tablets discovered in Persepolis in 1933-34 and 1936-38 by the archaeological expedition of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. They belonged to administrative records kept by agencies of the Achaemenid government during the reigns of Darius the Great, Xerxes and Artaxerxes I.^[4]

To clarify, the Persepolis Fortification Archive and the Persepolis Administrative Archive are different names for the same collection of tablets that provide valuable insights into the administrative workings of the Achaemenid Empire. Both collections are significant in understanding the Achaemenid Empire but focus on different aspects of administration and society. The Treasury Tablets primarily deal with economic and administrative matters, while the Fortification Archive focuses more on military and political affairs.

The Importance of Persepolis
The tablets were given the prefix Persepolis because they were discovered in the ruins of Persepolis, an ancient city in present-day Iran. Persepolis, meaning “City of Persians,” was one of the largest and most influential cities in ancient history and served as the centre of administration and power for the empire.

Founded by Darius I in 518 BC, Persepolis was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire. It was built on an immense half-artificial, half-natural terrace, where the king of kings created an impressive palace complex inspired by Mesopotamian models. The importance and quality of the monumental ruins make it a unique archaeological site.^[5]

Persepolis held great significance as the ceremonial capital for several reasons:

• Royal Complex: Persepolis was home to an impressive royal complex consisting of grand palaces, audience halls, and administrative buildings. These structures showcased the wealth, power, and grandeur of the Achaemenid rulers.
• Administrative Hub: Persepolis served as the administrative hub of the Achaemenid Empire. It was the centre of political decision-making, where the king and his officials conducted matters of state, including governance, taxation, and the management of the empire.
• Symbol of Imperial Control: Persepolis represented the Achaemenid Empire’s control over vast territories and diverse peoples. It served as a symbolic reminder of the empire’s authority and the submission of its subjects.
• Ceremonial Centre: Persepolis was the site of grand ceremonies, festivals, and religious rituals. It hosted important events that reinforced the ideology of kingship, emphasised the ruler’s divine connection, and fostered unity among the empire’s subjects.
• Artistic and Architectural Marvel: The buildings and sculptures at Persepolis were renowned for their exquisite craftsmanship and architectural innovations. They featured intricate carvings, monumental staircases, and impressive reliefs that depicted the empire’s achievements, religious beliefs, and cultural diversity.

Discovery
Excavations directed by Ernst Herzfeld at Persepolis between 1933 and 1934 for the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, discovered tens of thousands of unbaked clay tablets, badly broken fragments and bullae in March 1933. Before trying to build a pathway for debris to be removed from the ruins of palaces on the Persepolis terrace, Herzfeld decided to excavate the location first to ensure that making a passage would not harm anything. He found two rooms containing tens of thousands of clay tablets.

The tablets had been stored in a small space near the staircase in the tower in the fortification wall. The upper floor of the fortification wall may have collapsed at the time of the Macedonian invasion, both partially destroying the order of the tablets while protecting them until 1933.^[6] The entrance to the rooms had been bricked up in antiquity.^[7]

The exact reasons for storing the tablets in a small space near the staircase in the fortification wall at Persepolis are not definitively known, as there is limited historical documentation regarding the specific logistics of their placement. However, there are a few possible explanations based on archaeological evidence and speculation:

• Storage and Security: The tablets may have been stored in that specific location for secure and organised storage. Placing them near the staircase in the fortification wall could have provided a relatively safe and easily accessible space within the city’s defensive structures.
• Preservation: Storing the tablets within the fortification walls might have been a means of protecting them from potential damage or destruction. The walls would have provided some shelter and stability, helping preserve the tablets until their discovery.
• Administrative Convenience: The location near the staircase could have been chosen for practical reasons related to administrative efficiency. It may have been a central and easily accessible spot for those involved in administrative tasks to access and store the tablets.
• Unfinished Organisation: It’s also possible that the placement of the tablets near the staircase was not a deliberate decision but rather a temporary or incomplete arrangement. The tablets might have been in the process of being organised or moved to a more permanent storage area when the events leading to the city’s destruction occurred.

It is important to note that without additional historical records or direct evidence, the exact reasons for the tablets’ placement remain speculative. However, the tablets’ discovery in this location has provided archaeologists and historians with a remarkable collection of ancient records that offer insights into the administration and operations of the Achaemenid Empire.

The tablets were arranged in order, as in a library. After cleaning the tablets and fragments, they were covered with wax and, after drying, were wrapped in cotton and packed in 2,353 sequentially numbered boxes^[8] for shipping to the US.^[9] Herzfeld estimated there were about 30,000 or more inscribed and sealed clay tablets and fragments, but unusually for an archaeologist, he did not leave precise notes and, for an unknown reason, never published a proper archaeological report.^[10]

Cuneiform Explained
Cuneiform is a logo–syllabic script that was used to write several languages of the Ancient Middle East.^[11] The script was in active use from the early Bronze Age until the beginning of the Common Era.^[12] It is named for the characteristic wedge-shaped impressions (Latin: cuneus), which form its signs. Cuneiform was originally developed to write the Sumerian language of southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Cuneiform is the earliest known writing system.^{[13] & [14]}

Throughout its history, cuneiform was adapted to write several languages besides Sumerian. Akkadian texts are attested from the 24^th century BC onward and comprise the bulk of the cuneiform record.^{[15] & [16]} Akkadian cuneiform was itself adapted to write the Hittite language in the early second millennium BC.^{[17] & [18]} The other languages with significant cuneiform corpora are Eblaite, Elamite, Hurrian, Luwian, and Urartian. The Old Persian and Ugaritic alphabets feature cuneiform-style signs; however, they are unrelated to the cuneiform logo-syllabary proper. The latest known cuneiform tablet dates to 75 AD.^{[19] & [20]}

The Persepolis Fortification Archive and Persepolis Treasury Archive are two groups of clay administrative archives — sets of records physically stored together^[21] – found in Persepolis dating to the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

The discovery was made during legal excavations conducted by archaeologists from the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in the 1930s. Hence, they are named for their in situ findspot: Persepolis. The archaeological excavations at Persepolis for the Oriental Institute were initially directed by Ernst Herzfeld from 1931 to 1934 and carried on from 1934 until 1939 by Erich Schmidt.^[22]

While the political end of the Achaemenid Empire is symbolised by the burning of Persepolis by Alexander the Great (dated 330/329 BC), the fall of Persepolis paradoxically contributed to the preservation of the Achaemenid administrative archives that might have been lost due to the passage of time and natural and man-made causes.^[23]

Caption: Ernst Emil Herzfeld at Persepolis, Iran
Attribution: James Henry Breasted, Jr. (?-1983), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ernst_Herzfeld.jpg

According to archaeological evidence, the partial burning of Persepolis did not affect the Persepolis Fortification Archive tablets but may have caused the eventual collapse of the upper part of the northern Fortification wall that preserved the tablets until their recovery by the Oriental Institute’s archaeologists.^[24]

Thousands of clay tablets, fragments and seal impressions in the Persepolis archives are part of a single administrative system representing continuity of activity and data flow over more than fifty consecutive years (509 to 457 BCE).^[25] These records can throw light on the geography, economy, and administration, as well as the religion and social conditions of the Persepolis region, the heartland of the Persian Great Kings from Darius I the Great to Artaxerxes I.^[26]

The Persepolis Administrative Archives are the single most important extant primary source for understanding the internal workings of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. But while these archives have the potential for offering the study of the Achaemenid history based on the sole surviving and substantial records from the heartland of the empire, they are still not fully used as such by most historians.^[27]

The reason for the slow adoption of the study of Persepolis administrative archives can also be attributed to the administrative nature of the archives, lacking the drama and excitement of narrative history.^[28]

The Tablets
There are three main kinds of clay tablets and fragments in the Persepolis Fortification Archive:^[29]

• Elamite: the remains of more than 15,000 original records in the Elamite language, in cuneiform script.^[30]
• Aramaic: the remains of somewhat less than 1,000 original records in the Aramaic language and script.
• Uninscribed: the remains of about 5,000 or more original records which only had impressions of seals but no texts.

The functional relationships of the components remain unclear.^[31]

Caption: “File: Clay Tablet with Cuneiform Inscriptions (4703976097).jpg” by A. Davey from Portland, Oregon, EE UU is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

As of 2010, about 20,000-25,000 tablets and fragments representing about 15,000 to 18,000 original records remain at the Oriental Institute.^[32] The original archive could have been as many as 100,000 Elamite tablets. The edited samples to date may represent no more than five per cent of the original Achaemenid archive.^[33]

The size of the original archive for the entire reign of Darius I the Great, from 522 to 486 BC, just for the distribution of foodstuff, could have been as many as 200,000 records.^[34]

The Persepolis Fortification Archive covers sixteen years, from 509 to 493 BCE, from the regnal^[35] year 13^th to the regnal year 28^th of Darius I the Great. The chronological distribution of the archive is uneven, with the largest concentration from the regnal years 22^nd and 23^rd.^[36]

A Valuable Historical Resource
The tablets are a valuable historical resource as they provide information about the administration and economy of the Achaemenid Empire. The tablets contain records of financial transactions, such as payments of wages, taxes, and tribute, as well as information about the movement of goods and people.

The tablets are written in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian cuneiform, making them a valuable resource for scholars studying these languages. They also provide insights into the political and economic relations between the Achaemenid Empire and other ancient civilisations, such as Greece and Egypt.

The discovery of the Persepolis Treasury Tablets has helped enhance our understanding of the organisation and administration of the Achaemenid Empire and its place in ancient history.

Return of the Persepolis Fortification Tablets to Iran — A Promise Kept
In late April to early May 2004, a 70-year-old promise was kept by the Oriental Institute to the Iranian people when 300 cuneiform clay tablets were returned. The tablets had been on long-term loan since 1937 for the purpose of study, analysis, translation and publication. The clay tablets had been discovered by Ernst Herzfeld and his team from the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, in the 1930s at Persepolis, the 2,500-year-old monumental capital of the Achaemenid Persian empire.

Herzfeld and his team from the Oriental Institute found tens of thousands of tablets and tablet fragments impressed with writing in the cuneiform script.^[37] The paper is extremely interesting and worth taking the time to read.

Persepolis Fortification Archive
The Persepolis Fortification Archive (PFA), also known as Persepolis Fortification Tablets (PFT, PF), is a fragment of Achaemenid administrative records of receipt, taxation, transfer, storage of food crops (cereals, fruit), livestock (sheep and goats, cattle, poultry), food products (flour, bread and other cereal products, beer, wine, processed fruit, oil, meat), and by-products (animal hides) in the region around Persepolis (the larger part of modern Fars), and their redistribution to gods, the royal family, courtiers, priests, religious officiants, administrators, travellers, workers, artisans, and livestock.^[38]

The decipherment of the Persepolis archives, which consisted of clay tablets primarily written in a challenging late dialect of Elamite, was a necessary step towards gaining a better understanding of Achaemenid history.^[39] In 1935, the Iranian authorities loaned the Persepolis Fortification Archive to the Oriental Institute for research and publication. By 1936, the archive had arrived in Chicago, where it has been studied since 1937^[40]. The 1969 publication of Richard Hallock‘s comprehensive edition of 2,087 Elamite Persepolis Fortification Tablets played a significant role in revitalising Achaemenid studies during the 1970s. However, even after more than seven decades, this ongoing project is still far from being completed.^[41]

Caption: Early pictographic signs in archaic cuneiform (used vertically before c. 2300 BC).
Attribution: Mason, William Albert, 1855-1923, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cuneiform_pictographic_signs_(vertical).jpg

Revelation
The tablets discovered at Persepolis, including both the Persepolis Treasury Tablets and the Persepolis Fortification Archive, have provided valuable information about the Achaemenid Empire and its administration. Here are some examples of what has been learned from these tablets:

• Economic Activities: The tablets offer insights into the economic activities of the Achaemenid Empire, including financial transactions, taxation, trade, and resource management. They provide detailed records of payments, receipts, and expenditures, shedding light on the empire’s economic policies and practices.
• Administrative Structure: The tablets help understand the administrative structure of the Achaemenid Empire. They provide information about the government departments’ organisation, the officials’ roles and responsibilities, and the administration’s hierarchical structure.
• Agricultural and Resource Management: The tablets contain data related to the distribution and management of agricultural resources, such as food crops, livestock, and other products. They reveal details about the collection of taxes, the allocation of resources to different regions or groups, and the maintenance of supply chains.
• Trade Networks: The tablets contribute to our knowledge of the extensive trade networks of the Achaemenid Empire. They document the movement of goods, including raw materials, luxury items, and commodities, between different regions within the empire and with external territories.
• Diplomatic Relations: Some tablets in the Persepolis Fortification Archive provide insights into diplomatic correspondence, showcasing the interactions and relationships between the Achaemenid Empire and other contemporary powers, including alliances, treaties, and negotiations.
• Military Affairs: The tablets from the Persepolis Fortification Archive reveal information about military activities, defence strategies, and the organisation of military units within the empire. They shed light on the military’s role in maintaining security and protecting the empire’s interests.
• Social and Cultural Practices: The tablets occasionally mention social and cultural aspects of the Achaemenid Empire, such as religious activities, festivals, and the roles of individuals within society. They provide glimpses into the daily lives and practices of people during that time.

The list above provides a few examples of the valuable information gleaned from the tablets. Overall, they have significantly contributed to our understanding of the Achaemenid Empire’s administration, economy, trade, and societal dynamics, providing a wealth of historical knowledge about this ancient civilisation.

One hundred and fifty-three tablets and approximately 30,000 fragments, and an unknown number of uninscribed tablets were returned to Iran in the 1950s.^[42] So far, about 450 tablets and tens of thousands of fragments have already been returned to Iran.^[43]

The narrow content of the Persepolis Fortification Archive, which recorded only the Achaemenid administration’s transactions dealing with foodstuff, must be considered when assessing the amount of information that can be deduced from them.^[44]

Caption: Babylonian cuneiform numerals.
Attribution: Josell7, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Babylonian_numerals.svg

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International, 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license.

What Has Been Learned?
Some general examples of the types of ongoing research and major findings that have emerged from studying the Persepolis administrative archives are given below:

Ongoing Research Efforts

• Decipherment and Translation: Scholars continue deciphering and translating the remaining tablets, including the fragmented ones, to unlock their content and extract valuable historical information.
• Fragment Reconstruction: Archaeologists and researchers are working on piecing together fragmented tablets to reconstruct complete texts and gain a more comprehensive understanding of the recorded information.
• Comparative Analysis: Researchers are comparing the Persepolis administrative archives with other contemporary administrative archives and sources to identify connections, similarities, and differences, which can provide insights into regional administration and broader administrative practices of the Achaemenid Empire.

Major Findings and Contributions

• Economic Insights: The tablets have revealed detailed records of financial transactions, including payments, taxes, and tribute. These findings contribute to our understanding of the economic organisation, trade networks, and resource management of the Achaemenid Empire.
• Administrative Structure: The tablets provide valuable information about the administrative hierarchy, government departments, and the roles and responsibilities of officials, shedding light on the administrative organisation and governance of the empire.
• Military and Defence Strategies: The Persepolis Fortification Archive tablets have offered insights into military affairs, defence strategies, and the organisation of military units, providing a deeper understanding of the military aspects of the Achaemenid Empire.
• Diplomatic Relations and International Interactions: Some tablets contain diplomatic correspondence, revealing interactions and relationships between the Achaemenid Empire and other contemporary powers. These findings contribute to our knowledge of the empire’s diplomatic policies and international engagements.
• Social and Cultural Practices: The tablets occasionally mention social and cultural aspects, such as religious activities and festivals, offering an insight into the daily lives and practices of people during the Achaemenid period.

These are general examples of the types of ongoing research and major findings that have emerged from studying the Persepolis administrative archives. However, if you want to learn more, it’s important to consult recent scholarly publications and research articles to obtain the most up-to-date and detailed information on ongoing research efforts and specific findings related to the Persepolis tablets.

Concluding Words and Review
The Persepolis Treasury Tablets and the Persepolis Fortification Archive, together comprising the Persepolis administrative archives, are invaluable sources that provide deep insights into the Achaemenid Empire. These ancient clay tablets have shed light on various aspects of the empire’s administration, economy, trade, and military affairs. Researchers have unravelled the rich historical tapestry preserved within these tablets through meticulous study and decipherment.

Ongoing research and publication efforts continue to expand our understanding of the Achaemenid Empire by studying the Persepolis administrative archives. Scholars are engaged in deciphering and translating the remaining tablets, piecing together the fragments, and analysing the intricate details of the empire’s administrative, economic, and social aspects. These efforts are crucial in broadening our knowledge of this ancient civilisation and providing a more comprehensive picture of its governance and societal dynamics.

Recent studies have yielded significant findings that have enhanced our understanding of the Achaemenid Empire. Scholars have uncovered detailed records of financial transactions, taxation systems, trade networks, agricultural practices, diplomatic relations, and military strategies. These findings have deepened our knowledge of the empire’s administrative structure, economic policies, cultural interactions, and political landscape.

Studying the Persepolis Treasury Tablets and the Persepolis Fortification Archive holds immense value for historians, archaeologists, linguists, and scholars of ancient civilisations. These tablets provide a unique window into the inner workings of one of the most influential empires in history. They offer a glimpse into the daily lives, governance practices, and economic systems of the Achaemenid Empire, enabling us to appreciate its accomplishments, understand its challenges, and contextualize its place in ancient history.

The Persepolis archives testify to the importance of preserving and deciphering ancient texts. They remind us of the wealth of knowledge that can be gleaned from these artefacts, enriching our understanding of the past and illuminating the complexities of ancient societies. Continued research and exploration of the Persepolis tablets will no doubt yield further revelations and deepen our appreciation for the Achaemenid Empire’s enduring legacy.

Persepolis is not only an Achaemenid monument but also a treasury of Iranian history.^[45]

Caption: An Old Persian inscription in Persepolis.
Attribution: No machine-readable author provided. Ginolerhino assumed (based on copyright claims)., CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pers%C3%A9polis._Inscription.jpg

This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Caption: “Persepolis: Gate of Nations: detail view of entrance from east” by Penn State Libraries Pictures Collection is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.

Sources and Further Reading

• http://www.achemenet.com/en/tree/?/textual-sources/texts-by-regions/fars/the-persepolis-fortification-archive
• http://www.achemenet.com/en/tree/?/textual-sources/texts-by-regions/fars/the-persepolis-fortification-archive/persepolis-fortifications-tablets
• https://amuraworld.com/en/topics/history-art-and-culture/articles/6742-persepolis
• https://archive.archaeology.org/1201/features/persepolis_clay_tablets_iran_elamite_cuneiform.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_cuneiform_numerals
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives
• https://isac.uchicago.edu/collections/photographic-archives/persepolis/persepolis-terrace-architecture-reliefs-and-finds
• https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/projects/persepolis-fortification-archive
• https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/03-04_Persepolis_Fort_Tablets.pdf
• https://martinpollins.com/2022/10/31/xerxes-the-great-king-of-persia/
• https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah06243.pub2
• https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/114/
• https://www.academia.edu/37375663/pt_001_the_new_edition_of_persepolis_treasury_tablets
• https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-iran/evidence-of-the-persepolis-tablets/64B1E8D7D93F367BF56D5061004A5A34
• https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/persepolis-elamite-tablets
• https://www.jstor.org/stable/4300666
• https://www.livius.org/sources/about/persepolis-treasury-tablets/
• https://www.persepolisarchitecture.co.uk/about-persepolis/
• https://www.tasnimnews.com/en/news/2017/04/01/1361796/persepolis-a-beautiful-architectural-masterpieces
• https://www.tourhq.com/article/persepolis-the-ancient-city-of-art-and-architecture

Books:

• Ancient Archives and Archival Traditions. Concepts of Record-Keeping in the Ancient World, by Maria Brosius (ed.), published by Oxford University Press (Oxford) 2003, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ancient-Archives-Archival-Traditions-Record-Keeping/dp/0199252459
• Ancient Persia: from 550 BC to 650 AD, by Josef Wiesehöfer, published by I.B. Tauris 2010, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ancient-Persia-Josef-Wiesehofer/dp/1850439990/
• Forgotten Empire: the World of Ancient Persia, by John Curtis and Nigel Tallis (eds.), published by British Museum Press 2005, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Forgotten-Empire-World-Ancient-Persia/dp/0714111570
• From Cyrus to Alexander, a History of the Persian Empire, by Pierre Briant, published by Eisenbrauns 2002, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Cyrus-Alexander-History-Persian-Empire/dp/1575061201/
• Persians: The Age of the Great Kings, by Professor Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones, published by Wildfire 2023, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Persians-Great-Professor-Lloyd-Llewellyn-Jones/dp/1472277325/
• The Ritual Landscape at Persepolis: Glyptic Imagery from the Persepolis Fortification and Treasury Archives: 72 (Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilisation), Paperback/Illustrated, by Mark B. Garrison (Author), published by Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago 2017, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ritual-Landscape-Persepolis-Fortification-Civilisation/dp/1614910340/
• Women in Ancient Persia 559-331 BC, by Maria Brosius, published by Oxford University Press 1998, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ancient-Persia-559-331-Classical-Monographs/dp/0198152558
• The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts, Achaemenid History 14, by Wouter F.M. Henkelman, published by Peeters Pub & Booksellers, 2008, available at: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Other-Gods-Elamite-Iranian-Acculturation-Fortification/dp/9062584144/

CAUTION: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Parts of this paper include information provided via artificial intelligence which, although checked by the author, is not always accurate or reliable. Neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements and you should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.

End Notes and Explanations

1. Source: Compiled from research using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
2. Source: https://www.livius.org/sources/about/persepolis-treasury-tablets/ ↑
3. Source: https://amuraworld.com/en/topics/history-art-and-culture/articles/6742-persepolis ↑
4. Source: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/persepolis-elamite-tablets ↑
5. The description of Persepolis is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 ↑
6. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
7. Source: Ernst Herzfeld: Iran in the Ancient East, p. 226. London, 1941. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
8. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
9. Sources: [1] Hallock 1969:1, and [2] Razmjou “Find spots and find circumstances of documents excavated at Persepolis,” Persika 12, 2008:51. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
10. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
11. Source: Abraham Hendrik Jagersma, (2010). A descriptive grammar of Sumerian (PDF) (Thesis). Leiden: Faculty of the Humanities, Leiden University. p. 15. In its fully developed form, the Sumerian script is based on a mixture of logographic and phonographic writing. There are basically two types of signs: word signs, or logograms, and sound signs, or phonograms. ↑
12. Source: Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. “Hittite Online”. The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine (EIEOL). University of Texas at Austin. p. 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary. Hittite is written in the form of the cuneiform syllabary, a writing system in use in Sumerian city-states in Mesopotamia by roughly 3100 BC. and used to write a number of languages in the ancient Near East until the first century BC. ↑
13. Source: Olson, David R.; Torrance, Nancy (February 16, 2009). The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86220-2. ↑
14. Source: “The origins of writing”. www.bl.uk. ↑
15. Source: Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. “Hittite Online“. The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine (EIEOL). University of Texas at Austin. p. 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary. …by approximately 2350 BC. documents were written in cuneiform in Akkadian. Sumerian, a long-extinct language, is related to no known language, ancient or modern, and its structure differed from that of Akkadian, which made it necessary to modify the writing system. ↑
16. Source: “The origins of writing”. www.bl.uk. ↑
17. Source: Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. “Hittite Online”. The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine (EIEOL). University of Texas at Austin. p. 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary. …by approximately 2350 BC. documents were written in cuneiform in Akkadian. Sumerian, a long-extinct language, is related to no known language, ancient or modern, and its structure differed from that of Akkadian, which made it necessary to modify the writing system. ↑
18. Source: John Huehnergardv  (2004). “Akkadian and Eblaite”. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the World’s Ancient Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-521-56256-0. Connected Akkadian texts appear c. 2350 and continue more or less uninterrupted for the next two and a half millennia…” ↑
19. Source: Sara E. Kimball; Jonathan Slocum. “Hittite Online”. The University of Texas at Austin Linguistics Research Center. Early Indo-European OnLine (EIEOL). University of Texas at Austin. p. 2 The Cuneiform Syllabary. These modifications are important, because the Hittites borrowed them when they borrowed the writing system, probably from a north Syrian source, in the early second millennium B.C.E. In borrowing this system, the Hittites retained conventions established for writing Sumerian and Akkadian…” ↑
20. Explanation: Cuneiform was rediscovered in modern times in the early 17^th century with the publication of the trilingual Achaemenid royal inscriptions at Persepolis; these were first deciphered in the early 19^th century. The modern study of cuneiform belongs to the ambiguously-named field of Assyriology, as the earliest excavations of cuneiform libraries – in the mid-19^th century – were in the area of ancient Assyria. An estimated half a million tablets are held in museums worldwide, but comparatively few of these are published. The largest collections belong to the British Museum (approx. 130,000 tablets), the Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin, the Louvre, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, the National Museum of Iraq, the Yale Babylonian Collection (approx. 40,000 tablets), and the Penn Museum. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform ↑
21. Source: Kuhrt “The Persepolis Archives: concluding observations,” Persika 12, 2008:567. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
22. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
23. Source: Josef Wiesehöfer 10-11. Ancient Persia: from 550 BC to 650 AD London, 1996, 2001. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
24. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman, The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
25. Source: Matthew W. Stolper: “What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?” The Oriental Institute News & Notes, Winter 2007. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
26. Source: Josef Wiesehöfer 10-11. Ancient Persia: from 550 BC to 650 AD London, 1996, 2001. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
27. Source: Kuhrt “The Persepolis Archives: concluding observations,” Persika 12, 2008:567. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
28. Source: Matthew W. Stolper “What are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets?” The Oriental Institute News & Notes, Winter 2007. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
29. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: pp. 157-162. The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
30. Source: Persepolis Fortification Archive. Oriental Institute – The University of Chicago. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
31. Sources: [1] Wouter F.M. Henkelman: pp. 157-162. The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008, and [2] Garrison “The uninscribed tablets from the Fortification archive: a preliminary analysis,” Persika 12, 2008:149-238. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
32. Source:  Jones & Stolper “How Many Persepolis Fortification Tablets Are There?” Persika 12, 2008:37-44. https://nyu.academia.edu/CharlesJones/Papers/84747/How-many-Persepolis-Fortification-tablets-are-there– Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
33. Source: Henkelman 2008: Ch 2. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
34. Source: Ibid. ↑
35. Explanation: The word “regnal,” refers to the period during which a monarch or ruler reigns or holds power. In historical contexts, it is often used to specify the length of a ruler’s reign or to describe events or activities that occurred during a particular ruler’s reign. For example, if a tablet mentions a king’s regnal year, it refers to a specific year within the ruler’s reign. The use of regnal years helps establish chronological order and historical context when analysing ancient documents or events. ↑
36. Source: Henkelman 2008: Ch 2. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
37. Source: Persepolis Fortification Tablets, by Gil J. Stein, published by The Oriental Institute, The University of Chicago, at:

    https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/03-04_Persepolis_Fort_Tablets.pdf ↑

38. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
39. Source: George G. Cameron 1948: Preface. Persepolis Treasury Tablets, Oriental Institute Publications 65, Chicago. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
40. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
41. Source: Gil J. Stein: “A Heritage Threatened: The Persepolis Tablets Lawsuit and the Oriental Institute” The Oriental Institute News & Notes, Winter 2007. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
42. Source: Wouter F.M. Henkelman: The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts Achaemenid History 14. Leiden, 2008. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
43. Source: Jones & Stolper: “How Many Persepolis Fortification Tablets Are There?” Persika 12, 2008:37-44. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
44. Source: Kuhrt “The Persepolis Archives: concluding observations,” Persika 12, 2008:567. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives ↑
45. Source and Acknowledgement: https://www.tourhq.com/article/persepolis-the-ancient-city-of-art-and-architecture ↑