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The Vikings – Raiders, Explorers and Mythical Heroes of the Norse World

Overview[1]
This paper aims to provide an overview of the Vikings and covers various aspects of their history, culture, beliefs, and achievements. The Vikings were seafaring people from the Scandinavian region, primarily from what is now present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (see below). They were known for their exploration, trade, and raiding activities during the Viking Age. The Vikings originated from the Scandinavian countries, which were sparsely populated and had limited resources. The harsh climate and the availability of suitable ships encouraged their seafaring culture.


Caption: Guests from Overseas (1901) by Nicholas Roerich, depicting a Varangian raid.
Attribution: Nicholas Roerich, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nicholas_Roerich,_Guests_from_Overseas_(corrected_colour).jpg

During the late eighth century, Scandinavians embarked on a large-scale expansion in all directions, giving rise to the Viking Age. In English-language scholarship since the 19th century, Norse seafaring traders, settlers and warriors have commonly been called Vikings. Historians of Anglo-Saxon England distinguish between Norse Vikings (Norsemen) from Norway, who mainly invaded and occupied the islands north and north-west of Britain, Ireland and western Britain, and the Danish Vikings, who principally invaded and occupied eastern Britain. Modern descendants of Norsemen include the Danes, Icelanders, Faroe Islanders, Norwegians, and Swedes, who are now generally referred to as “Scandinavians” rather than Norsemen.[2]

Here are two intriguing anecdotes related to the Vikings’ exploits:

  • The Siege of Paris (885-886 AD): During the Viking Age, the Vikings were notorious for their raids on coastal regions, and one of their most memorable sieges was the Siege of Paris. In 885, a massive Viking fleet sailed up the Seine River and laid siege to the city of Paris, which was then the capital of the Carolingian Empire[3].

The Vikings, led by the renowned Viking chieftain Rollo[4], set up camp outside the city walls and began their assault. The siege lasted for over a year, with the Vikings using various tactics, including building siege towers and launching catapults. However, the Parisians held strong and resisted the Viking onslaught. In a surprising turn of events, it is said that the Frankish King Charles the Fat offered a bribe of silver and gold to the Vikings to end the siege. The Vikings accepted the bribe, lifted the siege, and departed, leaving Paris intact. This event showcases the Vikings’ formidable military capabilities and their willingness to negotiate for material gain.


Caption: Siege of Paris (885–886) [by Viking chieftain Rollo].
Attribution: Jean Victor Schnetz, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Siege_of_Paris_(885%E2%80%93886).jpeg

  • The Vinland Sagas: The Vinland Sagas are two Icelandic texts, the Saga of the Greenlanders and the Saga of Erik the Red, that recount the Viking exploration of North America around 1000 AD. According to these sagas, a Viking expedition led by Erik the Red’s son, Leif Erikson, discovered a land west of Greenland, which they named Vinland. The Vikings established settlements in Vinland, believed to be located in present-day Newfoundland, Canada. The sagas describe the interactions between the Vikings and the indigenous people they encountered, whom they referred to as Skrælings. The Vikings described these encounters with curiosity, noting cultural differences and occasional conflicts. The Vinland Sagas are fascinating because they provide evidence of pre-Columbian Norse exploration and settlement in North America, highlighting the Vikings’ remarkable navigational skills and ability to venture far beyond their homelands.

These anecdotes demonstrate the audacity and adventurous spirit of the Vikings, as well as their interactions with different cultures and the impact of their expeditions on history.

When was the Viking Age?

Caption: A genealogical chart of the Norman dynasty.
Attribution: Public Domain. Rollo. (2023, May 2). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chronological_tree_of_William_I.svg

The Viking Age is generally considered to have begun in the late 8th century and lasted until the 11th century. It was a period of significant Viking activity, including exploration, trade, colonisation, and raiding across Europe, the North Atlantic, and even reaching as far as the Mediterranean. The major events and historical context that characterised the Viking Age are shown below.

Expansion of Viking Influence:
The Viking Age began with a surge in seaborne expeditions by Scandinavian sailors, primarily from present-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Vikings ventured out across the North Atlantic, Baltic Sea, and rivers of Europe, expanding their influence through exploration, trade, and colonization. Their exceptional shipbuilding and navigational skills allowed them to reach far-flung regions, including England, Scotland, Ireland, France, the Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean, the Baltic region, and even North America.

Key Voyages of Exploration:
Several notable Viking voyages of exploration occurred during the Viking Age:

  • The Viking settlement of Iceland: In the late 9th century, Norse settlers, led by figures like Ingólfr Arnarson[5], established the first permanent settlements in Iceland. This marked the beginning of Viking expansion beyond their homelands and laid the foundation for a Norse-speaking society in Iceland.
  • Leif Erikson’s exploration of North America: Around the year 1000, Leif Erikson, son of Erik the Red, led an expedition to a land west of Greenland, which the Vikings named Vinland. This discovery represents the earliest known European exploration and attempted settlement of North America.
  • Exploration of the Mediterranean: Vikings ventured into the Mediterranean, conducting raids on coastal areas and establishing trade networks. They even reached as far as Constantinople (now Istanbul) and engaged in trade with the Byzantine Empire.

At one point, a group of Rus Vikings[6] went so far south that, after briefly being bodyguards for the Byzantine emperor, they attacked the Byzantine city of Constantinople.[7] Vikings also voyaged to Iran[8] and Arabia.[9]

Impact on European Societies:
The Vikings had a profound impact on European societies during the Viking Age:

  • Cultural Exchange: Through their extensive trade networks and interactions with different regions, Vikings facilitated cultural exchange, bringing new ideas, goods, and technologies to Europe and adopting aspects of local cultures themselves.
  • Political Influence: Viking raids and invasions contributed to political instability in Europe, leading to shifts in power dynamics and the reshaping of political boundaries. The establishment of Viking-controlled territories, such as the Danelaw in England and the Kingdom of Dublin in Ireland, had lasting effects on the political landscape.
  • Trade and Economic Networks: Vikings played a significant role in trade, both as merchants and raiders. Their extensive network connected regions across Europe, promoting economic exchange and the development of trading centres.
  • Language and Place-Names: The influence of Old Norse, the language of the Vikings, can be seen in the place-names and linguistic elements found in regions where they settled or had a significant presence. Many areas in England, Scotland, Ireland, and the North Atlantic still bear Viking-influenced names today.
  • Legal and Administrative Systems: The Vikings brought their own legal and administrative systems to the regions they colonised. Elements of Viking law, known as the “Thing system,” influenced local legal practices and governance structures.
  • Maritime Advances: The ship-building expertise of the Vikings had a lasting impact on maritime technology. Their advanced ship designs, such as the longships and knarrs, influenced subsequent ship-building traditions and contributed to the development of European naval capabilities.
  • Christianity and Religious Transformation: The spread of Christianity during the Viking Age led to a gradual shift in religious beliefs among the Vikings. The conversion to Christianity changed cultural practices, rituals, and societal norms.

Notable Conflicts and Raids:
Vikings were notorious for their raids on various regions, leaving a significant impact on European societies:

  • Raids on England: Vikings, particularly from Denmark and Norway, conducted repeated raids on England during the 9th and 10th centuries. These raids established Viking-controlled territories known as the Danelaw and eventually led to the partial conquest of England by Danish Viking King Cnut the Great in the early 11th century.
  • Siege of Paris: As previously mentioned, the Vikings laid siege to Paris in 885-886. Although they were eventually bribed to lift the blockade, this event highlighted the Vikings’ military prowess and ambition to target major European cities.
  • Battle of Stamford Bridge: This battle (fought on 25th September 1066 at the village of Stamford Bridge in the East Riding of Yorkshire) marked an engagement between the English forces led by King Harold Godwinson and the Norwegian Viking army led by King Harald Hardrada. The English achieved a decisive victory, effectively ending the immediate threat posed by the Norwegian Vikings in England. Although the battle itself did not directly impact Viking influence in England as a whole, its outcome showcased the military strength of the English forces and seemed to demonstrate their ability to defend against Viking invasions. However, the subsequent Battle of Hastings, fought on 14th October 1066, significantly altered the course of Viking influence in England. In this battle, King Harold Godwinson, having just faced the Norwegian Vikings at Stamford Bridge, confronted the invading forces of William, Duke of Normandy. King Harold was defeated and killed, leading to the Norman Conquest of England. The Norman rulers implemented their own political, cultural, and administrative systems, gradually diminishing the Viking influence in England.

Motivation
The motivations for Viking actions, including raiding and exploration, were multifaceted and varied among different groups and individuals. Understanding these motivations helps shed light on the driving forces behind their behaviour. Exploring each motivation in more detail:

  • Wealth and Resources: Vikings were driven by a desire to acquire wealth through various means such as raiding, trading, and exploration. They targeted areas known for their valuable goods, including silver, gold, precious stones, and slaves. For example, the Viking raids on monasteries and wealthy towns, such as the Lindisfarne raid in 793, were motivated by the pursuit of material wealth. The Vikings also established trade networks that extended from the Baltic region to the Mediterranean, further enriching themselves through commerce.
  • Expansion and Land: Overpopulation and limited resources in their homelands compelled some Vikings to seek new lands for settlement and agricultural opportunities. This drive for expansion led to the establishment of Viking colonies and settlements in regions like Iceland, Greenland, and parts of Britain. For instance, the Norse colonisation of Iceland during the 9th century was driven by the desire for new territories to support growing populations and exploit available resources.
  • Political Instability: The Viking Age was characterised by political turmoil and power struggles among various kingdoms and territories in Europe. Vikings skillfully exploited these internal conflicts to their advantage, often aligning themselves with local factions to gain influence or territory. An example is the Viking involvement in the power struggles within the Kingdom of Wessex in England. Vikings, such as Guthrum, formed alliances with rival factions, aiming to secure lands and assert control over the region.
  • Reputation and Honour: Viking society placed great importance on personal reputation and honour. Engaging in successful raids and acts of bravery brought social prestige and enhanced their status within their communities. The desire for reputation and honour motivated Vikings to undertake daring expeditions and engage in heroic deeds. The legendary Viking hero Ragnar Lothbrok, whose exploits were chronicled in sagas, became a symbol of Viking honour and bravery.

It is crucial to note that these motivations were not mutually exclusive, and different Vikings may have been driven by a combination of factors. The societal values and expectations of Viking culture played a significant role in shaping these motivations. The pursuit of wealth and glory aligned with the ideals of Viking society, which celebrated courage, adventure, and material success.

By understanding these motivations and considering the historical context, we can gain deeper insights into the complex factors that drove Viking actions during the Viking Age.

Religion/Beliefs
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, written in Old English, distinguishes between the pagan Norwegian Norsemen (Norðmenn) of Dublin and the Christian Danes (Dene) of the Danelaw. In 942 AD, it records the victory of King Edmund I over the Norse kings of York: “The Danes were previously subjected by force under the Norsemen, for a long time in bonds of captivity to the heathens“.[10]

In terms of religion, the Vikings practised Norse paganism, also known as Germanic paganism, which shaped their worldview and influenced various aspects of their lives. At the core of their belief system was a pantheon of gods and goddesses, with Odin, Thor, and Freya being among the most prominent deities.

The Vikings worshipped a diverse pantheon, each deity embodying different aspects of life, nature, and human experiences. Odin, the Allfather, was the god of wisdom, war, and poetry, associated with knowledge and magic. Thor, the mighty god of thunder, was revered as the protector of mankind and the defender against giants and other threats. Freya, the goddess of love, fertility, and beauty, represented feminine power and the cycle of life.

The Norse religion that contained the myths never had a true name – those who practised it just called it “tradition.” However, people who continued to follow the old ways after the arrival of Christianity were sometimes called “heathens,” which originally meant “people who live on the heaths” or elsewhere in the countryside, and the name has stuck[11].

Their religious beliefs permeated various aspects of Viking society. Rituals and ceremonies played a central role in their religious practices. Blót, a sacrificial ritual, was performed to honour the gods and seek their favour. These rituals often involved offering animals, such as horses or livestock, to the gods. The belief in the afterlife and valuing honourable death in a battle shaped their funeral rites, with the deceased being buried alongside their belongings and sometimes even with sacrificed individuals.

Norse paganism emphasised honour, bravery, and the cyclical nature of life and death. The gods and goddesses were not distant or abstract figures but rather active participants in the lives of the Vikings, influencing their daily decisions and actions. Seeking divine favour and guidance, the Vikings often consulted seers, known as volvas, who could communicate with the gods through trance-like states.

With the spread of Christianity during the Viking Age, many Vikings eventually converted to Christianity, particularly in the later stages. The conversion to Christianity significantly changed Viking society, as the new religion challenged and eventually supplanted the traditional Norse pagan beliefs. This transition profoundly impacted their cultural practices, rituals, and worldview. It is important to note that Norse paganism was not a homogeneous belief system, and practices and beliefs could vary among different regions and communities. However, the overarching influence of the gods and goddesses, the rituals and ceremonies, and the core values of honour and bravery remained integral to Viking society for a long time.


Caption: Viktor Vasnetsov, The Invitation of the Varangians: Rurik and his brothers arrive in Staraya Ladoga.
Attribution: Viktor Mikhailovich Vasnetsov, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B3%D0%B8.jpg

Who were the Varangians?
The Varangians were Viking[12] conquerors, traders and settlers, mostly from present-day Sweden.[13] The Varangians settled in the territories of modern-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, and in the 9th century, they founded the medieval state of Kievan Rus’. They also formed the Byzantine Varangian Guard, which later also included Anglo-Saxons.[14]

According to the 12th century Primary Chronicle, a group of Varangians known as the Rus’[15] settled in Novgorod in 862 under the leadership of Rurik. Before Rurik, the Rus’ might have ruled an earlier hypothetical polity known as the Rus’ Khaganate. Rurik’s relative Oleg conquered Kiev (today the capital of Ukraine) in 882 and established the state of Kievan Rus’, which was later ruled by Rurik’s descendants.[16] Engaging in trade, piracy, and mercenary service, Varangians roamed the river systems and portages of Gardariki, as the areas north of the Black Sea were known in the Norse sagas.

What is Norse Mythology?


Caption: Thor’s Fight with the Giants (Tors strid med jättarna) by Mårten Eskil Winge (1872).
Attribution: Mårten Eskil Winge, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

Norse Mythology refers to the rich collection of mythological beliefs and stories central to the Norse people, including the Vikings. These myths encompassed tales of gods, goddesses, mythical creatures, and heroic figures, shaping the cultural and spiritual fabric of Viking society.

At the heart of Norse mythology were the gods and goddesses who played pivotal roles in these myths:

  • Odin, the Allfather and ruler of Asgard, was associated with wisdom, war, and magic. He famously sacrificed one of his eyes in exchange for profound knowledge.
  • Thor, the god of thunder and protector of mankind, wielded the mighty hammer Mjölnir and defended the realms from giants and other threats.
  • Loki, a trickster god, was known for his cunning and shape-shifting abilities, often causing mischief and chaos among the gods.

One of the most well-known myths is the creation story of the Norse cosmos[17]. According to this myth, the world was formed from the body of the primordial giant Ymir. The gods then created the world of humans, Midgard, by using Ymir’s flesh and bones. This myth emphasised the interconnection of all beings and the cyclical nature of life and death.

The Norse myths were filled with epic tales of heroic figures and their exploits. The story of Ragnar Lothbrok[18], a legendary Viking hero, showcased his adventures, battles, and eventual demise. The epic poem Beowulf (see below), although originating from earlier Anglo-Saxon tradition, was also cherished by the Vikings and celebrated the heroic deeds of the warrior Beowulf.

These myths and legends held deep significance for the Vikings, shaping their understanding of the world and their place within it. They reflected the values and ideals cherished by Viking society, such as courage, honour, and the pursuit of glory. The myths provided moral lessons, guidance, and inspiration, emphasising the importance of bravery in the face of adversity and the constant struggle against cosmic forces.

The Norse myths also offered a framework for understanding natural phenomena and the cycles of life. They provided explanations for natural events, such as thunderstorms or the changing of seasons, as well as exploring the complexities of human emotions and relationships.

Norse mythology was not a static belief system but a living tradition that evolved over time and varied across different regions. The myths were shared through oral tradition and later recorded in the Eddas[19] and sagas. The enduring popularity of Norse mythology continues to captivate and inspire people worldwide, leaving a lasting legacy on literature, art, and popular culture.

Legends and Sagas
Legends and sagas form an integral part of Viking culture, providing a rich tapestry of storytelling that has captivated audiences for centuries. These narratives offer glimpses into the Viking worldview, their brave exploits, and their deep-rooted beliefs:

  • One of the most enduring legends is the saga of Ragnar Lothbrok, a mythical Viking hero whose tales are woven with a blend of history and myth. Ragnar Lothbrok, often portrayed as a fearless warrior and skilled seafarer, became an iconic figure in Viking lore. His exploits included daring raids on distant lands, his fabled prowess in battle, and his audacious encounters with legendary creatures. The saga of Ragnar Lothbrok not only celebrates his legendary status but also explores themes of honour, fate, and the cyclical nature of life and death.
  • Another prominent figure in Viking mythology is Beowulf[20], a heroic figure from Scandinavian folklore. Beowulf’s epic saga follows his remarkable feats as he confronts monstrous adversaries, such as the fearsome Grendel and the cunning dragon. This epic poem, composed in Old English, presents a gripping tale of courage, honour, and the triumph of good over evil. Through Beowulf’s adventures, the poem reflects the Viking ideals of bravery, loyalty, and the relentless pursuit of glory.
  • Delving into the realms of gods and mythology, the Norse pantheon showcases a rich collection of deities and their extraordinary exploits. The Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, two essential texts in Norse literature, provide invaluable insights into the adventures of the gods. These texts document the creation of the world, the battles among the gods, and their interactions with humans. The Poetic Edda consists of a collection of ancient poems, often lyrical in nature, that depict the tales of deities, heroes, and supernatural beings. The Prose Edda, attributed to the Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson, offers a more detailed and prose-based account of Norse mythology, providing a comprehensive understanding of the gods and their roles in the Viking cosmos.
  • The adventures of the Norse gods, such as those I have mentioned (Odin, Thor and Loki), and Freyja[21], captivate the imagination with their divine powers, complex relationships, and larger-than-life personalities. These tales explore the interplay between the gods and mortals, delving into themes of honour, destiny, and the eternal struggle between order and chaos. Through the sagas and legends of the Viking age, a vivid and colourful tapestry of the Viking world comes to life, painting a multifaceted picture of their society, beliefs, and the enduring legacy of their myths.

If you delve into these sagas and legends, you’ll gain valuable insights into the cultural, historical, and spiritual aspects of the Viking civilisation. In addition to providing entertainment, they also serve as a window into the Viking mindset, values, and their profound connection to the natural world. These tales have transcended time and continue to inspire and fascinate contemporary audiences, ensuring that the legacy of the Vikings lives on through their stories.

Raiding, Raping and Pillaging
While it is important to acknowledge that not all Vikings were raiders, it is equally crucial to address the extent and impact of their raiding and pillaging activities. The Vikings, known for their seafaring prowess and warrior culture, did engage in raids that left a lasting impact on the regions they targeted.

The motivations behind Viking raids and the reasons for them were diverse, reflecting a combination of economic, political, and social factors. Among these motivations were a desire for wealth and resources, territorial expansion, political instability in the affected regions, and the pursuit of glory and reputation. It is essential to recognise that while raiding was a part of Viking society, it does not define the entirety of their civilisation.

Viking raids were not limited to a single region but spanned various areas during their expeditions. Primary targets were Europe’s coastal areas, including England, Scotland, Ireland, France, and other parts of Western Europe. The Vikings’ longships, renowned for their speed and manoeuvrability, allowed them to swiftly navigate rivers and coasts, making surprise attacks and quick escapes. Additionally, they ventured into the Baltic region, Russia, and reached North America, evidenced by their settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows in present-day Newfoundland.

The methods employed by the Vikings during raids were both strategic and brutal. They would often strike with great speed, overwhelming unsuspecting communities and leaving destruction in their wake. Their tactics included surprise attacks, plundering of valuable goods, burning settlements, and capturing slaves for trade. The Vikings’ reputation as fearsome warriors preceded them, often leading to surrender or negotiation rather than pitched battles. However, resistance was not uncommon, and clashes between the Vikings and local forces sometimes resulted in intense conflicts.

The consequences of Viking raids were far-reaching for both the Vikings and the affected regions. The raids caused widespread fear and instability among the targeted communities, leading to the fortification of coastal towns and the development of defence systems. The economic impact was significant, as raids disrupted trade routes, damaged infrastructure, and depleted resources. However, it is worth noting that the Vikings were not solely destructive; they also established trade networks and settlements in some areas, contributing to cultural exchanges and economic growth.

Over time, the Vikings’ raiding activities began to decline as they shifted towards other pursuits, such as exploration, trade, and settlement. As Viking societies became more organised and centralised, they transitioned from raiding to establishing long-term settlements and trading networks, leaving a lasting impact on the regions they once targeted.

While raiding and pillaging were part of Viking society, it is important to recognise that the Vikings’ cultural and historical contributions extended beyond these actions. Their impact on the regions they encountered, both through raiding and subsequent interactions, shaped the course of history and left a lasting legacy that continues to be studied and appreciated today.


Caption: A fresco in the 11th c. Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv that appears to depict a berserker ritual performed by Varangians (Scandinavians).
Attribution: English: Unknown, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fighting_Mimes_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

Berserkers
Berserkers, also known as berserks, were legendary Norse warriors who were known for their incredible ferocity and battle frenzy in Norse sagas and mythology. The word “berserker” is derived from the Old Norse words “berserkr” or “berserkr,” which roughly translates to “bear shirt” or “bearskin.” This name is thought to have originated from the warriors wearing animal skins, such as bear pelts, to invoke the spirit and strength of the animal.

Berserkers were renowned for their wild and uncontrollable rage on the battlefield. They were said to enter a trance-like state known as “berserkergang,” where they would become consumed by an intense fury and fight with unmatched strength, endurance, and brutality. In this state, they were believed to be impervious to pain and fear, allowing them to unleash devastating attacks on their enemies. I have read a great deal about how German soldiers in Word War II dosed themselves up to their eyeballs with Pervitin, an early form of methamphetamine enabling them to march for days without sleep and discard all fears for their safety – it makes me think the suggestion was right that Berserkers were probably on a ‘high’ for most of the time. The Berserker rage was often described as an altered state of consciousness, attributed to a combination of battle frenzy, psychological conditioning, and possible ingestion of hallucinogenic substances.

Some accounts suggest that Berserkers would bite their shields, howl like animals, and exhibit other primal behaviours. Their allies and enemies often saw their appearance and actions as supernatural or superhuman – in a word: frightening. In battle, berserkers were known to be a terrifying force, charging into the thick of combat with little regard for their personal safety. They were skilled warriors who fought with weapons such as axes, swords, and spears. The ferocity and reckless abandon with which they fought made them formidable adversaries, capable of inspiring fear and panic among their enemies.

Berserkers have left a lasting impact on Norse mythology and continue to capture the imagination in popular culture. Their depiction in sagas and legends has inspired various interpretations in literature, art, and modern media, portraying them as fearsome warriors driven by an indomitable fury.

Battles
The Viking Age was marked by a multitude of battles that played a significant role in shaping the course of history. Warfare held a prominent position in Viking society, with military activities being an integral part of their culture and expansionist ambitions. It is important to provide a broader overview of Viking military activities, including their strategies, tactics, and the overall significance of warfare in their society.

The Vikings were skilled warriors who employed various military strategies and tactics during their battles. They possessed a deep understanding of naval warfare, using their renowned longships to launch surprise attacks and swiftly navigate waterways. Their mobility and mastery of sea routes allowed them to strike coastal areas with great speed, overwhelming their adversaries. On land, Viking forces were known for their proficiency in close-quarter combat, using weapons such as swords, axes, spears, and shields. They employed shield walls, a defensive formation in which warriors interlocked their shields to create a formidable barrier against their opponents.

While it is impossible to detail every battle fought by the Vikings, several noteworthy engagements shaped their expansion or decline:

  • One such battle was the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, where the English forces, led by King Harold Godwinson, defeated an invading army of Norwegian Vikings led by King Harald Hardrada. This victory secured the English throne for Harold temporarily, but it also weakened his forces, leaving them vulnerable to the subsequent Norman invasion at the Battle of Hastings later that same year.
  • Another significant battle was the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, fought in Ireland. This battle marked a major confrontation between the Irish and their allies against Viking forces led by Sigtrygg Silkbeard. While the Vikings were ultimately defeated, the battle was significant in curbing their influence in Ireland and diminishing their presence in the region.
  • The Battle of Maldon in 991 also holds historical importance, demonstrating the clash between the English and Viking forces in England. This battle, immortalised in the Old English poem “The Battle of Maldon,” showcased the courage and steadfastness of the English warriors in the face of Viking aggression. Although the English ultimately suffered defeat, the battle highlighted the resistance and resilience of the English against Viking incursions.

These battles, along with numerous others, had broader implications for Viking expansion or decline. Victories secured new territories, resources, and opportunities for trade and settlement. On the other hand, defeats sometimes led to the retraction of Viking influence and the diminishing of their power in specific regions.

The outcomes of these battles, whether triumph or defeat, influenced the trajectory of Viking expansion and shaped the historical landscape of the Viking Age.

Rulers/Kings
Throughout Viking history, numerous influential rulers and kings emerged, leaving their mark on Viking society and shaping the course of history. It is essential to provide more information about these notable Viking leaders, their achievements, the territories they ruled, and their impact on Viking society and history. Additionally, it is worth mentioning other influential figures, such as Viking chieftains, jarls, or legendary heroes:

  • One prominent Viking ruler was Harald Fairhair, who played a pivotal role in the unification of Norway during the 9th century. Fairhair, often regarded as the first King of Norway, embarked on a campaign of conquest, consolidating power and centralizing authority. His reign marked a significant shift from decentralised chieftaincies to a unified kingdom. Harald’s unification efforts formed a distinct Norwegian identity and set the stage for subsequent Viking expansion and exploration.
  • Sweyn Forkbeard stands as another notable Viking leader. He became the first Danish King of England in the early 11th century. Sweyn Forkbeard, a fierce warrior and skilled strategist, led successful military campaigns, culminating in the conquest of England in 1013. His reign marked a period of Danish dominance in England and set the foundation for the Viking rule that followed under his son, Cnut the Great.
  • Cnut the Great ascended to power in the early 11th century and ruled over a vast Viking empire that included England, Denmark, and Norway. Also known as Cnut the Great and Canute, he was King of England from 1016, King of Denmark from 1018, and King of Norway from 1028 until he died in 1035.[22] The three kingdoms united under Cnut’s rule were called the North Sea Empire. His reign was marked by political and military accomplishments. He displayed astute statesmanship, effectively consolidating power and maintaining stability within his realm. Cnut’s efforts also extended to cultural and religious spheres, as he sought to bridge the gap between Viking and Christian traditions. His rule exemplified the extent of Viking influence and the ability to govern diverse territories.

In addition to these Viking kings, other influential figures within Viking society are worth mentioning. Viking chieftains and jarls played critical roles in local governance, leading expeditions and maintaining order within their territories. Legendary heroes and figures, such as Ragnar Lothbrok and Ivar the Boneless, became the subjects of sagas and legends, symbolising the bravery and military cunning of Viking warriors. These historical and mythical figures contributed to the tapestry of Viking society, embodying the ideals of strength, leadership, and adventure.


Caption: “Leeds, The Royal Armouries, Viking Axe” by One lucky guy is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Weaponry and Ship-Building Prowess
Weaponry
The Vikings were renowned for their prowess in battle, and they relied on an array of weapons that showcased their skill and strategic approach to combat. These weapons varied in design and purpose, allowing Vikings to adapt to different fighting styles and situations. Some notable weapons used by the Vikings include:

  • Swords: Viking swords were prized possessions and essential weapons for Viking warriors. Typically straight with double-edged blades and a sharp point, these swords were versatile for slashing and thrusting attacks. They were often intricately decorated with patterns and inscriptions, reflecting the status and craftsmanship associated with Viking warriors.
  • Axes: Axes were a distinctive weapon in the Viking arsenal, embodying their ferocious and relentless fighting style. Viking axes ranged in size and design, from small hand axes used for close-quarters combat to larger battle axes with longer handles for chopping and slashing. The axe’s curved blade allowed for powerful and devastating strikes, capable of cleaving through armour and inflicting grievous wounds.
  • Spears: Spears were among the most widely used weapons by Vikings, valued for their versatility and relatively low cost. Vikings used spears for throwing and thrusting, making them effective in ranged and close combat. Spears provided an advantage in formations such as shield walls, where the spear’s length allowed warriors to attack from behind the protective cover of their shields.
  • Shields: Viking shields played a crucial role in their defensive strategies. Typically round or oval-shaped, Viking shields were made of wood and reinforced with metal rims and a central boss for added protection. These shields offered reliable defence against incoming attacks and served as a platform for offensive manoeuvres. They were often adorned with intricate designs, showcasing the individual warrior’s identity and status.


Caption: Viking swords displayed at Hedeby Viking Museum.
Attribution: Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viking_swords.jpg
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic license.

The Viking’s expertise in weapon craftsmanship and their understanding of effective combat techniques contributed to their reputation as formidable warriors. The combination of skillfully designed weaponry and tactical proficiency allowed the Vikings to adapt to various battlefield scenarios, making them a formidable force in the Viking Age.

Ship-Building
The Vikings’ ship-building prowess was instrumental in their exploration, trade, and raiding activities. Their mastery of naval architecture enabled them to construct remarkable vessels critical to their success. Notable Viking ship designs include:

  • Longships: The iconic longships, also known as longboats, epitomise the Viking ship-building excellence. These sleek and shallow-draft vessels had a symmetrical design, allowing for exceptional speed and manoeuvrability. Equipped with both oars and a square sail, longships enabled Vikings to navigate open seas and venture deep into rivers, making them formidable raiding and exploration vessels.
  • Knarrs: Knarrs were broader and heavier cargo ships that played a vital role in Viking trade and colonisation efforts. With a deeper hull and larger cargo capacity, these ships could transport goods, livestock, and even settlers over longer distances. Knarrs were sturdier and more stable than longships, making them ideal for extended voyages and carrying valuable resources.
  • Construction: Viking ships were predominantly built using a technique known as clinker-built construction. They used overlapping wooden planks, creating a strong and flexible hull. The ships featured a keel and ribs for structural integrity, ensuring stability and seaworthiness. To prevent leakage, the gaps between the planks were sealed using tarred wool or animal hair mixed with pitch or tar.

The mastery of ship-building allowed the Vikings to undertake daring voyages across the North Atlantic, pushing the boundaries of exploration, trade, and colonization. Their advanced ships enabled them to navigate treacherous waters and reach distant lands, such as Iceland, Greenland, and even parts of North America, several centuries before Christopher Columbus. The combination of their ship-building expertise and navigational skills solidified the Vikings’ reputation they encountered.

The Viking ship-building legacy is still evident today. Their ship designs, particularly the longships, have become iconic symbols of Viking culture and seafaring prowess. The influence of Viking ship-building techniques can also be seen in subsequent maritime traditions and advancements in ship construction. Furthermore, the Vikings’ maritime activities and trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural influences between regions. Their voyages created connections and intermingling of cultures, leaving a lasting imprint on the societies they encountered. This cultural exchange enriched artistic traditions, language, and even social structures.


Caption: Image from the Bayeux Tapestry showing Harold Godwinson‘s ship approaching a beach, probably in the Somme Estuary.
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tapisserie_bato1.jpg
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

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Caption: Viking expeditions (blue line): depicting the immense breadth of their voyages through most of Europe, the Mediterranean Sea, Northern Africa, Asia Minor, the Arctic, and North America. Lower Normandy, depicted as a “Viking territory in 911”, was not part of the lands granted by the king of the Franks to Rollo in 911, but Upper Normandy.
Attribution: en:User:Bogdangiusca, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vikings-Voyages.png
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Conclusions and Review
The impact of the Vikings extended far beyond their raiding and conquests. Over time, Vikings integrated into the societies they encountered, resulting in cultural, economic, and political consequences that left lasting legacies in the regions they once inhabited. The adoption of Christianity played a significant role in this transformation. Embracing the new faith, the Vikings actively participated in the spread of Christianity throughout the lands they inhabited, profoundly affecting their culture, social structures, and religious practices. Christianization facilitated trade, diplomatic ties, and cultural exchanges with neighbouring Christian kingdoms, fostering a sense of shared values and peaceful interactions.

The integration of Vikings into local societies also had profound cultural implications. Through intermarriage, cultural assimilation, and the exchange of ideas, the Vikings left an indelible imprint on the regions they settled. Their language, Old Norse, influenced the development of local dialects and languages, leaving traces in place names, terminology, and loanwords. Viking cultural elements, including storytelling, folklore, and craftsmanship, became interwoven into the fabric of local cultures, enriching artistic traditions and folklore.

The economic impact of Viking integration cannot be overstated. As the Vikings settled and established trade networks, they contributed to the growth of commerce and the development of urban centres. Their presence stimulated trade routes, connecting distant regions and introducing new goods such as furs, timber, and precious metals to international markets. Furthermore, their maritime expertise and seafaring traditions left a lasting legacy in navigation and maritime traditions, influencing seafaring practices and ship-building techniques.

Politically, the Vikings’ integration took various forms depending on the region. They assimilated into existing power structures, becoming influential figures within local kingdoms and contributing to the consolidation of political entities. In other cases, they established their own political entities, such as the Danelaw in England or the Norse Gaels in Ireland and Scotland. Viking rulers and chieftains played pivotal roles in local politics, diplomacy, and governance, leaving a lasting impact on regional power dynamics.

The legacy of the Vikings endures to this day. Their influence can be observed in the languages spoken in Scandinavia and the British Isles, bearing traces of Old Norse. Norse mythology and sagas continue to inspire literature, film, and popular culture, preserving the memory of their stories and legends. Additionally, Viking maritime traditions and navigational skills have laid the foundation for seafaring traditions in the regions they once inhabited, impacting exploration, trade, and ship-building practices.

The decline of Viking power and influence can be attributed to various factors, including the consolidation of European kingdoms, the spread of Christianity, and internal conflicts within Viking societies. As time went on, the Viking raids subsided, and they gradually assimilated into the societies they had once targeted. While no single entity definitively defeated the Vikings, their influence gradually waned.

The Viking story serves as a testament to the complexity and impact of human interactions throughout history. I hope you’ve enjoyed reading it.

Sources and Further Reading

Books:

CAUTION: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Parts of this paper include information provided via artificial intelligence which, although checked by the author, is not always accurate or reliable. Neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements and you should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.

End Notes and Explanations

  1. Source: Compiled from research using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
  2. Sources and Background: [1] Kristinsson, Axel (2010). Expansions: Competition and Conquest in Europe Since the Bronze Age.  ReykjavíkurAkademían.

    ISBN 978-9979992219.  The same can be said of Viking Age Scandinavians, who did not have a common ethnonym but expressed their common identity through the geographical and linguistic terms … There is absolutely no doubt about a common Northern identity during the Viking Age and afterwards … it even survives today. [2] Kennedy, Arthur Garfield (1963). “The Indo-European Language Family”. In Lee, Donald Woodward (ed.). English Language Reader: Introductory Essays and Exercises. Dodd, Mead. [T]he pages of history have been filled with accounts of various Germanic peoples that made excursions in search of better homes; the Goths went into the Danube valley and thence into Italy and southern France; and thence into Italy and southern France; the Franks seized what was later called France; the Vandals went down into Spain, and via Africa, they ‘vandalized’ Rome; the Angles, part of the Saxons, and the Jutes moved over into England; and the Burgundians and the Lombards worked south into France and Italy. Probably very early during these centuries of migration, the three outstanding groups of the Germanic peoples—the North Germanic people of Scandinavia, the East Germanic branch, comprising the Goths chiefly, and the West Germanic group, comprising the remaining Germanic tribes—developed their notable group traits. Then, while the East Germanic tribes (that is, the Goths) passed gradually out of the pages of history and disappeared completely, the North Germanic, or Scandinavian, or Norse, peoples, as they are variously called, became a distinctive people, more and more unlike the West Germanic folk who inhabited Germany itself and, ultimately, Holland, and Belgium and England. While that great migration of nations which the Germans have named the Volkerwanderung, was going on, the Scandinavian division of the Germanic peoples had kept their habitation well to the north of the others and had been splitting up into the four subdivisions now known as the Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Icelanders. Long after the West Germanic and East Germanic peoples had made history farther south in Europe, the North Germanic tribes of Scandinavia began a series of expeditions which, during the eighth and ninth centuries, in the so-called Viking Age especially, led them to settle in Iceland, to overrun England and even annex it to Denmark temporarily, and, most important of all, to settle in northern France and merge with the French to such an extent that Northmen became Normans, and later these Normans became the conquerors of England., and [3] Davies, Norman (1999). The Isles: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198030737. Ottar belonged to a group of peoples who were beginning to have a huge impact on European history. They are now called ‘Scandinavians’, though historically they were called ‘Northmen’. All cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsemen ↑

  3. Explanation: The Carolingian Empire (800–888 AD) was a large Frankish-dominated empire in western and central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lombards in Italy from 774. In 800, the Frankish King Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III in an effort to transfer the Roman Empire from the Byzantine Empire to Western Europe. The Carolingian Empire is considered the first phase in the history of the Holy Roman Empire. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Empire ↑
  4. Comment: The Viking Rollo (c. 846 – c. 930 AD), the first Duke of Normandy, was, according to the sagas, so big that no horse could carry him, hence the nickname “Gange Rolv”, meaning Walking Rolv / Rollo. Cited at: https://thornews.com/ ↑
  5. See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ing%C3%B3lfr_Arnarson ↑
  6. Explanation: The Rus Vikings were a group of Norse seafarers and traders who established a presence in Eastern Europe during the Viking Age. They were primarily centred around the region that is now modern-day Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. The name “Rus” is believed to have derived from the Old Norse term “Róðrsveinr,” meaning “rower” or “seafarer.” The Rus Vikings are particularly associated with the establishment of trade routes, primarily along the rivers of Eastern Europe, such as the Volga and Dnieper Rivers. They engaged in extensive trade and cultural exchanges with various local communities and Eastern European civilizations, including the Khazars, Slavs, and Byzantine Empire. While the exact origins of the Rus Vikings remain a topic of debate among historians, it is generally accepted that they were predominantly from the Scandinavian regions, particularly Sweden. The Rus Vikings established settlements and trading posts, such as Novgorod and Kiev, which eventually became centres of political and economic power. The Rus Vikings played a significant role in the formation of the early East Slavic state known as Kievan Rus. They influenced the development of local governance, trade networks, and cultural practices in the region. The rulers of Kievan Rus, known as “Rurikid” princes, traced their lineage back to the legendary Viking leader Rurik, who is believed to have established the first ruling dynasty in the region. The influence of the Rus Vikings extended beyond trade and political power. They also made notable contributions to Eastern European culture, including the introduction of Norse mythology, legal codes, and artistic influences. The influence of the Rus Vikings in the region eventually merged with the local Slavic cultures, leading to the formation of a distinct East Slavic identity. The Rus Vikings had a lasting impact on the historical and cultural development of Eastern Europe. Their trade routes and connections facilitated the flow of goods, ideas, and technology, contributing to the economic growth and cultural exchange in the region. The legacy of the Rus Vikings is evident in the rich historical and architectural heritage of cities like Novgorod and Kiev, and their presence is still remembered and celebrated in Eastern European culture today. Source: ChatGPT, Artificial Intelligence. ↑
  7. Source:  Christopher Klein, “Globetrotting Vikings: The Quest for Constantinople”. HISTORY. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings ↑
  8. Source:  Donald F. Logan, (1992). The Vikings in History. ISBN 0-415-08396-6. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings ↑
  9. Source: Colleen E. Batey, Graham-Campbell, James (1994). Cultural Atlas of the Viking World. New York: Facts on File. p. 184. ISBN 9780816030040. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings ↑
  10. Sources: [1]  Williams, Ann (2004). “Edmund I (920/21–946)”. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861412-8., [2]

    Whitelock, Dorothy, ed. (1979). “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle”. English Historical Documents, Volume 1, c. 500–1042 (2nd ed.). London, UK: Routledge. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-415-14366-0, and [3] Bately, Janet, ed. (1986). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A Collaborative Edition, 3, MS A. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-85991-103-0. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norsemen ↑

  11. Source and acknowledgement: https://norse-mythology.org ↑
  12. Source:  Ildar Kh. Garipzanov, The Annals of St. Bertin (839) and Chacanus of the Rhos. Cited at:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians ↑
  13. Sources:  [1] “væringer”. Store norske leksikon, [2]  Little, Becky. “When Viking Kings and Queens Ruled Medieval Russia”. HISTORY, and [3] “Rus | people | Britannica”. www.britannica.com. Cited at:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians ↑
  14. Sources: [1] Milner-Gulland, R. R. (1989). Atlas of Russia and the Soviet Union. Phaidon. p. 36. ISBN 0-7148-2549-2., and  [2] Schultze, Sydney (2000). Culture and Customs of Russia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 5. ISBN 0-313-31101-3. Cited at:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians ↑
  15. Source: http://www.pushkinskijdom.ru/Default.aspx?tabid=4869 ↑
  16. Sources: [1] Duczko, Wladyslaw (2004). Viking Rus. Brill Publishers. pp. 10–11. ISBN 90-04-13874-9, and [2] “Rurik Dynasty”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Cited at:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians ↑
  17. Explanation: Norse cosmology is the study of the cosmos (cosmology) as perceived by the ancient North Germanic peoples. The topic encompasses concepts from Norse mythology, such as notions of time and space, cosmogony, personifications, anthropogeny, and eschatology. Like other aspects of Norse mythology, these concepts are primarily recorded in the Poetic Edda, a collection of poems compiled in the 13th century, and the Prose Edda, authored by Icelander Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, who drew from earlier traditional sources. Together these sources depict an image of Nine Worlds around a cosmic tree, Yggdrasil. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_cosmology ↑
  18. Explanation: Ragnar Lodbrok (“Ragnar hairy-breeches”), according to legends, was a Viking hero and a Swedish and Danish king. He is known from Old Norse poetry of the Viking Age, Icelandic sagas, and near-contemporary chronicles. According to traditional literature, Ragnar distinguished himself by conducting many raids against the British Isles and the Holy Roman Empire during the 9th century. He also appears in Norse legends, and according to the legendary sagas Tale of Ragnar’s Sons and a Saga about Certain Ancient Kings, Ragnar Lodbrok’s father has been given as the legendary king of the Swedes, Sigurd Ring. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Lodbrok ↑
  19. Explanation: The term “Eddas” refers to two important collections of Old Norse literature: the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda. These texts are essential sources of information about Norse mythology, cosmology, and heroic legends. [1] The Poetic Edda, also known as the Elder Edda or the Saemundar Edda, is a collection of Old Norse poems. These poems were likely composed between the 9th and 13th centuries, though the manuscript containing them dates to the 13th century. The Poetic Edda consists of mythological poems, heroic lays, and gnomic verses. It contains famous works like the “Völuspá” (Prophecy of the Seeress), “Hávamál” (Sayings of the High One), and “Lokasenna” (Loki’s Quarrel). [2] The Prose Edda, also known as the Younger Edda or Snorra Edda, was written by the Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson around the 13th century. It is a comprehensive work that serves as a guide to Old Norse poetry and a repository of Norse mythology. The Prose Edda consists of three main parts: the Gylfaginning (the Deluding of Gylfi), which narrates the creation of the world and the adventures of the gods; the Skáldskaparmál (the Language of Poetry), which provides information on poetic techniques, kennings (poetic metaphors), and mythological stories; and the Háttatal (List of Meters), which is a collection of verse forms and examples. Both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda were crucial in preserving and transmitting the myths, legends, and cultural heritage of the Norse people. They offer insights into the Norse gods, cosmology, creation myths, heroic sagas, and other aspects of their worldview. These texts continue to be studied and referenced by scholars, writers, and enthusiasts interested in Norse mythology and literature. Source: Source: ChatGPT, Artificial Intelligence. ↑
  20. Explanation: Beowulf is an Old English epic poem in the tradition of Germanic heroic legend consisting of 3,182 alliterative lines. It is one of the most important and most often translated works of Old English literature. The date of composition is a matter of contention among scholars; the only certain dating is for the manuscript, which was produced between 975 and 1025. Scholars call the anonymous author the “Beowulf poet”. The story is set in pagan Scandinavia in the 6th century. Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hrothgar, the king of the Danes, whose mead hall in Heorot has been under attack by the monster Grendel. After Beowulf slays him, Grendel’s mother attacks the hall and is then defeated. Victorious, Beowulf goes home to Geatland and becomes king of the Geats. Fifty years later, Beowulf defeats a dragon, but is mortally wounded in the battle. After his death, his attendants cremate his body and erect a tower on a headland in his memory. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf ↑
  21. Explanation: In Norse paganism, Freyja (Old Norse “(the) Lady“) is a deity associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic for seeing and influencing the future). Freyja is the owner of the necklace Brísingamen, rides a chariot pulled by two cats, is accompanied by the boar Hildisvíni, and possesses a cloak of falcon feathers. By her husband Óðr, she is the mother of two daughters, Hnoss and Gersemi. Along with her twin brother Freyr, her father Njörðr, and her mother (Njörðr’s sister, unnamed in sources), she is a member of the Vanir. Stemming from Old Norse Freyja, modern forms of the name include Freya, Freyia, and Freja. Freyja rules over her heavenly field, Fólkvangr, where she receives half of those who die in battle. The other half go to the god Odin‘s hall, Valhalla. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freyja ↑
  22. Source: Weir, Alison (1989). Britain’s Royal Families. Vintage. p. 30. ISBN 9780099539735. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnut ↑

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Martin Pollins

Martin Pollins is a Chartered Accountant and MBA with wide experience in corporate finance and business management. He has served on the boards of several companies, including those listed on the London Stock Exchange, AIM and OFEX. He is the Chairman and Founder of OneSmartPlace and was a Council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1988 to 1996. He was managing partner of PRB Martin Pollins, based in Sussex, the first Accountancy firm to advertise on British television. He went on to create and launch the CharterGroup Partnership (the UK’s first Accountancy network) and then LawGroup UK (at the time, one of the largest networks of lawyers in the UK). In recent years, he helped to raise several £millions to fund British films such as The Da Vinci Code, Bridge of San Luis Rey, Head in the Clouds and Merchant of Venice with actors such as Charlize Theron, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, F. Murray Abraham. Kathy Bates, Gabriel Byrne, Geraldine Chaplin, Tom Hanks, Ian McKellen, Audrey Tautou, Penélope Cruz, Steven Berkoff, Lynn Collins, Jeremy Irons, Joseph Fiennes and many more. He has written several business publications (see https://onesmartplace.com/resources/)

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