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Understanding the Shang Dynasty – Society, Culture, and Religion

Introduction[1]
The Shang Dynasty (Chinese: 商朝; pinyin: Shāng Cháo), also known as the Yin Dynasty (Chinese: 殷代; pinyin: Yīn Dài), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally (according to most, but not all, scholars) succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the Book of Documents, Bamboo Annals and Records of the Grand Historian.

According to the traditional chronology based on calculations made approximately 2,000 years ago by Liu Xin, the Shang ruled from 1766 to 1122 BC, but most recent scholarship has preferred the 16th to 11th centuries BC.

The Shang Dynasty is the earliest dynasty in traditional Chinese history, firmly supported by archaeological evidence. Excavation at the Ruins of Yin (near modern-day Anyang), identified as the last Shang capital, uncovered eleven major royal tombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites containing weapons of war and the remains from animal and human sacrifices. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artefacts have been found.


Caption: A Shang dynasty bronze vessel to preserve drink.
Attribution: Musée Cernuschi, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:La_Tigresse,_bronze_vessel_to_preserve_drink._Hunan,_11th_BC._Cernuschi_museum.jpg
This file is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

The Anyang site has yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, mostly divinations inscribed on oracle bones – turtle shells, ox scapulae, or other bones. More than 20,000 were discovered in the initial scientific excavations during the 1920s and 1930s, and over four times as many have been found since. The inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics, from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilisation.[2]

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) is considered the second dynasty of China, succeeding the Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BC) after the overthrow of the Xia tyrant Jie by the Shang leader, Tang.[3]

Timeline
I have set out below a detailed timeline[4] of the Shang Dynasty (the approximate duration of which was from c. 1600 to 1046 BC), including key events and approximate dates. Please note that the exact chronology and dating of events in the Shang Dynasty can vary slightly among different sources due to ongoing research and discoveries:

  • 1600 BC: Traditional date for the establishment of the Shang Dynasty by King Tang, considered the first Shang ruler.
  • 1556 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Xiao Jia.
  • 1500 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Tai Wu.
  • 1470 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Wo Ding (also known as Wu Ding).
  • 1430 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Zu Geng.
  • 1384 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Zu Jia.
  • 1354 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Zu Xin.
  • 1323 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Yong Ji.
  • 1281 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Tai Geng.
  • 1250 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Da Jia.
  • 1200 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Xiao Yi.
  • 1190 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Xiao Xin.
  • 1162 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Xiao Yi’s son, King Yi Yin.
  • 1143 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Tai Jia.
  • 1112 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Wo Jia.
  • 1086 BC: Approximate date of the reign of King Lin Xin.
  • 1050 BC: Traditional date for the fall of the Shang Dynasty and the rise of the Zhou Dynasty under King Wu of Zhou.

It’s important to note that the dating and chronology of the Shang Dynasty rely on a combination of historical records, oracle bone inscriptions, archaeological evidence, and scholarly research. The timeline provided here represents a general understanding of the dynasty’s chronology, but please be aware that specific dates and details may vary slightly among different sources and ongoing research.


Caption: Tortoise plastron with divination inscription dating to the reign of King Wu Ding.
Attribution: National Museum of China, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shang_dynasty_inscribed_tortoise_plastron.jpg
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Oracle Bone Inscriptions [5]
Oracle bone script is an ancient form of Chinese characters that were engraved on oracle bones—animal bones or turtle plastrons used in pyromantic divination. Oracle bone script was used in the late 2nd millennium BC, and is the earliest known form of Chinese writing.

The vast majority of oracle bone inscriptions, of which about 150,000 pieces have been discovered, were found at the Yinxu site located in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province.[6]

The latest significant discovery is the Huayuanzhuang storage of 1,608 pieces, 579 of which were inscribed, found near Xiaotun in 1993.[7] They record pyromantic divinations of the last nine kings of the Shang dynasty, beginning with Wu Ding, whose accession is dated by different scholars at 1250 BC or 1200 BC.[8]

Founding Myth
The founding myth of the Shang Dynasty, as described by Sima Qian in the Annals of the Yin (part of Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian), involves a woman named Jiandi (簡狄), who was the second wife of Emperor Ku. According to the myth, Jiandi swallowed an egg dropped by a blackbird (玄鳥) and miraculously gave birth to Xie (also known as Qi).

Xie is said to have played a role in helping Yu the Great, a legendary figure associated with controlling the Great Flood, which devastated ancient China. As a reward for his service, Xie was granted a fief called Shang, which became the foundation of the Shang Dynasty.

This founding myth, as recorded by Sima Qian, provides a legendary narrative that explains the origins of the Shang Dynasty and connects it to the mythical and historical figures of ancient China.

The Shang Kingdom [9]
According to legend, the Shang Dynasty was founded around 1600 BC by a virtuous man named Cheng Tang, who overthrew the evil king of the legendary Xia. The Shang Dynasty was a monarchy governed by a series of kings, 29 or 30 in total, over the course of almost 600 years.

The king was served by officials who held specialised positions of authority and function; and the officials belonged to a hereditary class of aristocrats, usually related to the king himself.

Dynastic Placing in Chinese History
The Shang Dynasty was the second recorded dynasty in Chinese history, following the Xia Dynasty. It existed from approximately the 16th century BC to the 11th century BC and was centred in the Yellow River Valley in present-day China. The Shang Dynasty is known for its significant contributions to Chinese culture, technology, and governance.

The Shang Dynasty is the earliest dynasty in traditional Chinese history, firmly supported by archaeological evidence. Excavation at the Ruins of Yin (near modern-day Anyang), which has been identified as the last Shang capital, uncovered 11 major royal tombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artefacts have been found.[10]

The Anyang site has yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, mostly divinations inscribed on oracle bones – turtle shells, ox scapulae, or other bones. More than 20,000 were discovered in the initial scientific excavations during the 1920s and 1930s, and over four times as many have been found since. The inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics, from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilisation.[11]

Kings
A succession of kings ruled the Shang Dynasty, and their names have been recorded on oracle bone inscriptions, which provide valuable historical information about their reigns. Some notable Shang kings include Tang, Wu Ding, and Di Xin, based on historical records and research[12]:

  • Tang (湯): Tang is considered the founder of the Shang Dynasty and the first recognised Shang king. He is credited with establishing the political and social structures of the dynasty.
  • Wu Ding (武丁): Wu Ding is one of the most well-known Shang kings. He ruled for a long period and is associated with significant developments in Shang society, such as advancements in bronze casting, military campaigns, and extensive oracle bone inscriptions.
  • Di Xin (also known as Zhou) (帝辛/紂): Di Xin (also referred to as Zhou) is the last king of the Shang Dynasty. His reign is associated with excessive and oppressive behaviour, often depicted in historical accounts and literature. The fall of the Shang Dynasty is attributed to Di Xin’s misrule and the rise of the Zhou Dynasty under King Wu of Zhou.

The names of the Shang kings have been recorded on oracle bone inscriptions, which provides historical insights into their reigns. It is important to note that studying the Shang Dynasty is an ongoing field of research, and fresh discoveries may contribute to our understanding of the dynasty’s kings and their reigns. Scholarly works and archaeological findings continue to shed light on the historical context of the Shang Dynasty and its rulers.

Political and Social Structure
The Shang Dynasty was a feudal society with a hierarchical political structure. The king or emperor was at the top of the hierarchy, known as the “Shangdi” or “Di.” Below the king were the nobles and aristocrats who held regional power and governed territories known as “fiefs.” The nobles owed loyalty and military service to the king.

The Shang society was divided into classes, with the ruling elite comprising the highest class. Below them were the commoners, including farmers, artisans, and merchants. Slavery also existed, with prisoners of war or individuals in debt serving as slaves.

Cultural Achievements
The Shang Dynasty made significant cultural advancements, particularly in areas such as art, writing, religion, and bronze metallurgy. They created intricate bronze vessels, weapons, and ritual objects through the advanced technique of bronze casting. They also had a rich artistic tradition, producing jade carvings, pottery, and exquisite craftsmanship. These objects demonstrated the wealth and power of the Shang elite.

The Shang Dynasty developed a system of writing known as oracle bone script, which was used for divination and record-keeping. Oracle bones, primarily turtle shells or animal bones, were inscribed with questions or requests to ancestral spirits or deities. The cracks that appeared after heating the bones were interpreted as divine responses.

Religiosity and Cosmological Worldview
Religion played an important role in Shang society, with a strong belief in ancestral worship. The Shang people worshipped ancestors and numerous deities, seeking their favour and guidance through rituals, sacrifices, and divination practices.

The Shang had a number of religious practices, one of which was veneration of dead ancestors; Shang people made sacrifices to and asked questions of their ancestors. The sacrifices were also intended to seek blessings, protection, and the continuity of the ruling lineage.

The specific reasons for the sacrificial practices during the Shang Dynasty can be attributed to their religious and cosmological worldview. The Shang people believed in a complex spiritual realm populated by gods, spirits, and ancestors. They thought that these higher powers had influence over their lives and the prosperity of their kingdom. Rituals and sacrifices were performed to communicate with these deities and maintain a harmonious relationship with them.

Sacrifices, including animal sacrifices, were believed to be a way to honour and appease the gods and ancestors, seeking their favour, protection, and blessings. By offering animals such as dogs as sacrificial victims, the Shang people believed they were providing companionship and sustenance to the deceased rulers and ancestors in the afterlife. The sacrificial act was seen as a way to ensure the well-being and continuity of the ruling lineage and the kingdom’s prosperity.

The sacrifice of puppies, in particular, has been documented in archaeological findings. Puppies were chosen as sacrificial animals, likely due to their association with innocence, purity, and vitality. The Shang people believed that by sacrificing young and healthy animals, they could offer a more potent gift to the gods and ancestors. It’s important to note that sacrificial practices were not exclusive to the Shang Dynasty and existed in many ancient cultures around the world. They reflected a belief system deeply rooted in the spiritual and religious worldview of the time. Sacrifices were performed to fulfil religious obligations, express devotion, and seek supernatural assistance and protection.

While the practice of animal and human sacrifice may seem foreign or even cruel from a modern perspective, it is essential to understand these rituals within their historical and cultural contexts. The motivations and justifications for such practices varied across different cultures and time periods. The ruling elite faced challenges in maintaining control over their vassals and territories. The expansion of territories and increased demands on resources strained the central administration. Additionally, nomadic tribes such as the Zhou posed threats from the periphery. These factors contributed to the decline of the dynasty. Over time, the ruling elite weakened, and the central administration struggled to maintain control.

Archaeological Finds


Caption: “Ritual Wine Storage Jar (Zun) with Masks, Dragons, and Bovine Heads LACMA M.89.136.1” by Fæ is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Archaeological excavations have unearthed numerous artefacts and sites associated with the Shang Dynasty. These findings, which include oracle bones with inscriptions, bronze vessels, jade artefacts, pottery, tombs, sacrificial pits, ancient city ruins, and remnants of palaces, have greatly contributed to our understanding of the Shang Dynasty. They provide evidence of the material culture, religious practices, social structure, and daily life of the Shang Dynasty.

The earliest and to-date most well known Shang site is Yinxu, near Anyang in Henan province. Work began in 1928 initially as an investigation of the source of oracle bones. It was carried out by a team from the new research organisation Academia Sinica, and directed by the Harvard-trained anthropologist Li Ji. Fifteen seasons of excavation were carried out at Anyang until 1937, when the Second Sino-Japanese War forced the archaeologists to evacuate. During that time, the Anyang excavators uncovered large pounded-earth (hangtu) architectural foundations, sacrificial burial cemeteries, and gigantic shaft tombs, as well as caches of bronze vessels. Historians have come to associate the site with Yinxu, the traditional name of the Shang capital for the last twelve kings of the dynasty, starting with Pan Geng. Excavations at Anyang resumed in 1950, under the auspices of a new Institute of Archaeology, and a permanent field station was established there in 1958.[13]

The successes at Anyang encouraged further archaeological efforts, awareness of which has been fostered by the State Bureau of Cultural Relics. In 1952, excavations at Erligang, near Zhengzhou, disclosed the remains of a walled city at least as large as Anyang, but from a demonstrably earlier period. Excavations were difficult, however, because the ancient city lay beneath the modern one. The still older site of Erlitou, near Luoyang, was discovered in 1959 by a survey prospecting for Xia remains. The three sites of Erlitou, Erligang, and Anyang have been taken to provide a complete chronological sequence for the early Bronze Age in China.[14]

Agriculture and Economy
Agriculture formed the backbone of the Shang Dynasty’s economy. The primary crops cultivated were millet, wheat, barley, and rice. Farming was carried out using primitive tools made of stone, wood, and bone.

Trade and commerce also played a role in the Shang economy. The Shang Dynasty engaged in long-distance trade, exchanging goods such as silk, jade, bronze objects, and pottery with neighbouring regions and tribes. This trade network contributed to cultural exchange and the spread of Shang influence.

Farming communities were organised, and surplus agricultural production contributed to trade and the accumulation of wealth.

Military and Warfare
The Shang Dynasty had a well-developed military system. The king served as the supreme military commander and led armies composed of noble warriors. The Shang military used infantry and archers in warfare and employed various tactics and technologies. Chariots played a significant role on the battlefield, with skilled charioteers using them as mobile platforms to engage enemies. The Shang army also consisted of infantry and archers who fought on foot. Bronze weapons, such as axes, spears, and swords, were prevalent among the elite warriors.

The Shang Dynasty engaged in frequent warfare, both for defence and expansion. Military campaigns were often conducted against neighbouring tribes or to suppress internal uprisings. Oracle bone inscriptions provide valuable information about military affairs and the Shang’s victories and defeats.

The military campaigns of the Shang Dynasty served multiple purposes. They aimed to defend the kingdom from external threats, expand territorial control, suppress uprisings or rebellions, and secure resources and tribute from conquered territories.


Caption: “Turquoise-inlaid jade dagger Shang Dynasty 1300-1200 BCE” by mharrsch is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Decline of the Dynasty
The decline of the Shang Dynasty can be attributed to various factors. Internal conflicts, including succession disputes, power struggles among the nobility, corruption, and social unrest, weakened the central authority.

During the last centuries of China’s Shang Dynasty, ritual sacrifice was a cultural phenomenon, rich and varied in its manifestations. Rulers and elites sacrificed animals and humans to appease spirits or ancestors. As humans met their ends, dogs (usually puppies) were often right beside them. A study in Archaeological Research in Asia, published in March 2019, shows that people from the Shang dynasty relied heavily on sacrificial puppies to accompany them in death. Ritual sacrifice, including the sacrifice of animals such as dogs, was a significant cultural practice during the Shang Dynasty. The sacrifice of animals and humans was an integral part of Shang’s religious and ancestral beliefs.[15]

Around the 11th century BC, the Zhou Dynasty, with its powerful military force, overthrew the Shang Dynasty, establishing the next era of Chinese history. The fall of the Shang Dynasty marked the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in China.

The Shang Dynasty’s legacy lives on through its cultural and technological achievements, which had a lasting impact on subsequent dynasties and the development of Chinese civilisation. The oracle bone scripts laid the foundation for the evolution of Chinese writing systems.

Fall of the Dynasty
The last king of the Shang Dynasty, Shang Chou, was a cruel man known for his torture methods. The dynasty had been weakened by repeated battles with nomads and rivalling tribes within China. Shang Chou was ousted by the rebel leader Wu-wang in 1111 BC.[16]

The fall of the Shang Dynasty occurred when the Zhou Dynasty, a neighbouring power, overthrew the Shang rulers. Led by King Wu of Zhou, the Zhou forces defeated the Shang forces in the Battle of Muye, marking the end of the Shang Dynasty.

The Battle of Muye
The Battle of Muye (c. 1046 BC) was fought in ancient China between the rebel Zhou state and the reigning Shang Dynasty. The Zhou army, led by Wu of Zhou, defeated the defending army of king Di Xin of Shang at Muye and captured the Shang capital Yin, ending the Shang Dynasty. The Zhou victory led to the establishment of the Zhou Dynasty and is used in Chinese historiography as a justifying example of the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven.[17]

The Zhou Dynasty established the next era of Chinese history, marking the transition from the Shang Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty enforced its rule and claimed the Mandate of Heaven, a concept in ancient Chinese philosophy that justified the legitimacy of rulers. The fall of the Shang Dynasty is generally attributed to the Zhou’s military conquest and their ability to exploit the weaknesses of the Shang rulers.


Caption: Battle of Muye, the battle during which Zhou overthrew the Shang Dynasty.
Attribution: SY, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Muye.jpg
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Dynastic Cycle [18]
The overthrow of the Shang Dynasty and the rise of the Zhou marked a significant transition in Chinese history, known as the “Dynastic Cycle”, an important political theory in Chinese history:

  • According to this theory, each dynasty of China rises to a political, cultural, and economic peak and then, because of moral corruption, declines, loses the Mandate of Heaven, and falls, only to be replaced by a new dynasty. The cycle then repeats under a surface pattern of repetitive motifs.[19]
  • It sees a continuity in Chinese history from early times to the present by looking at the succession of empires or dynasties, implying that there is little basic development or change in social or economic structures.[20]

The cycle appears as follows:[21]

  • A new ruler founds a new dynasty and gains the Mandate of Heaven.[22]
  • China, under the new dynasty, achieves prosperity.
  • The population increases.
  • Corruption becomes rampant in the imperial court, and the empire begins to enter decline and instability.
  • A natural disaster wipes out farmland. The disaster alone normally would not have been a problem, but combined with the corruption and overpopulation, it causes famine.[23]
  • The famine causes the population to rebel, and a civil war ensues.[24]
  • The ruler loses the Mandate of Heaven.[25]
  • The population decreases because of the violence.[26]
  • China goes through a warring-states period.[27]
  • One state emerges victorious.
  • The state starts a new empire.[28]
  • The empire gains the Mandate of Heaven.[29]

(The cycle iteratively repeats itself.)

The fundamental idea of the Mandate of Heaven was that the monarch was favoured by Heaven to rule over China. The Mandate of Heaven explanation was championed by the Chinese philosopher Mencius during the Warring States period.[30] It has three main phases:

  • The first is the beginning of the dynasty.
  • The second is in the middle of the dynasty’s life and is the peak of the dynasty.
  • The last period is the dynasty’s political and economic decline until it finally collapses.

Review and Concluding Words
In this paper, I have taken you on a journey to a time long ago in exploring various aspects of the Shang Dynasty, shedding light on its historical significance and cultural achievements. By examining historical records, archaeological findings, and scholarly research, we now have insights into the dynasty’s founding myth, dynastic placing in Chinese history, political and social structure, cultural accomplishments, agriculture and economy, military and warfare, decline, and fall.

The Shang Dynasty, also known as the Yin Dynasty, was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC. Traditional chronology places the Shang Dynasty from 1766 to 1122 BC, but more recent scholarship suggests the 16th to 11th centuries BC as a more accurate timeframe.

Archaeological excavations at the Ruins of Yin, particularly at the site of Anyang, have provided substantial evidence supporting the existence of the Shang Dynasty. Discoveries of major royal tombs, palaces, ritual sites, and an abundance of bronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artifacts have enriched our understanding of Shang culture and society. Additionally, the oracle bone inscriptions found at the Anyang site have yielded valuable insights into the politics, economy, religion, and early stages of Chinese civilisation.

The Shang Dynasty had a hierarchical political structure, with the king or emperor at the top, followed by the nobles and aristocrats who governed regional territories. The society was divided into different classes, and agriculture played a vital role in the economy. The Shang Dynasty engaged in long-distance trade, contributing to cultural exchange and the spread of their influence.

Militarily, the Shang Dynasty maintained a well-developed system. The king served as the supreme military commander, leading armies composed of noble warriors. Chariots played a significant role on the battlefield, along with infantry and archers armed with bronze weapons.


Caption: Qing dynasty depiction of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of a unified China
Attribution: Unknown artistUnknown artist, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qinshihuang.jpg

The decline of the Shang Dynasty can be attributed to internal conflicts, succession disputes, power struggles, corruption, and social unrest. Additionally, external pressures, such as conflicts with nomads and rivaling tribes, weakened the central authority. The Zhou Dynasty eventually overthrew the Shang rulers, establishing the next era of Chinese history.

The fall of the Shang Dynasty marked the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in China. Its legacy lives on through its cultural and technological achievements, such as the oracle bone scripts that laid the foundation for the evolution of Chinese writing systems.

In conclusion, the Shang Dynasty holds a significant place in Chinese history and has greatly influenced subsequent dynasties. Its rich cultural heritage, advancements in art, writing, metallurgy, and military strategies, as well as its political structure and religious practices, have shaped Chinese civilisation.

Studying the Shang Dynasty remains an ongoing field of research, with new discoveries continually contributing to our understanding of this ancient dynasty. By examining historical sources, archaeological evidence, and the investigative work of scholars, we can continue to unravel the mysteries and complexities of the Shang Dynasty, further enhancing our knowledge of ancient China.

Sources and Further Reading

Books:

Videos:

CAUTION: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Parts of this paper include information provided via artificial intelligence which, although checked by the author, is not always accurate or reliable. Neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements and you should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.

End Notes and Explanations

  1. Source: Compiled from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty and research using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
  2. Source: Keightley, David N., (2000), The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (ca. 1200–1045 B.C.), China Research Monograph, vol. 53, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-070-0. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty ↑
  3. Source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Shang_Dynasty/ ↑
  4. Source and Caveat: Source: For the timeline of the Shang Dynasty, the information provided is based on general knowledge and consensus within the field of Chinese history. It draws upon commonly accepted dates and events found in various scholarly works, including but not limited to:

    “The Cambridge History of Ancient China” edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy, “Early China: A Social and Cultural History” by Li Feng, “The Shang: China’s First Historical Dynasty” by K.C. Chang, “Ancient China: A History” by John S. Major, “China: A History” by John Keay. These sources, among others, provide insights into the historical timeline and key events of the Shang Dynasty. It should ne noted that while the timeline provided reflects the general consensus among scholars, there may be variations and ongoing discussions regarding specific dates and details. ↑

  5. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone_script ↑
  6. Source: Shen, Chen. (2002). Anyang and Sanxingdui: Unveiling the Mysteries of Ancient Chinese Civilizations. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. ISBN 0-88854-441-3, p. 86. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone_script ↑
  7. Ibid. ↑
  8. Sources: [1] Li, Xueqin (2002). “The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results”. Journal of East Asian Archaeology. 4: 321–333, and [2] David N. Keightley 1978, p. 228, Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China. University of California Press, Berkeley. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone_script ↑
  9. Source: https://fsi9-prod.s3.us-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/ShangDynasty.pdf ↑
  10. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty ↑
  11. Source: Keightley, David N., (2000), The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (ca. 1200–1045 B.C.), China Research Monograph, vol. 53, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-070-0. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_dynasty ↑
  12. Note: The exact order and duration of reigns of the kings may vary in different historical sources. ↑
  13. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_archaeology ↑
  14. Ibid. ↑
  15. Source: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/uncovering-the-sacrificial-puppies-of-the-shang-dynasty/ ↑
  16. Source: https://www.ushistory.org/civ/9b.asp ↑
  17. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Muye ↑
  18. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle ↑
  19. Source:  Edwin O. Reischauer, “The Dynastic Cycle”, in John Meskill, The Pattern of Chinese History, (Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company, 1965), pp. 31-33. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle ↑
  20. Source: “Dynastic cycle,” in Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 978-0700704392., p. 87. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle ↑
  21. Source: Ch 4, “Alien Rule and Dynastic Cycles“, Fairbank, John King (1979). The United States and China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 80–104. ISBN 978-0674924352. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle ↑
  22. Source: Ching, Frank. Ancestors: 900 Years in the Life of a Chinese Family. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1974. p 78. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle ↑
  23. Ibid. ↑
  24. Ibid. ↑
  25. Ibid. ↑
  26. Source: Wills, John E. Mountain of Fame: Portraits in Chinese History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994- p. 35. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle ↑
  27. Ibid. ↑
  28. Source: Ching, Frank. Ancestors: 900 Years in the Life of a Chinese Family. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1974. p 78. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastic_cycle ↑
  29. Ibid. ↑
  30. Ibid. ↑

 

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Martin Pollins

Martin Pollins is a Chartered Accountant and MBA with wide experience in corporate finance and business management. He has served on the boards of several companies, including those listed on the London Stock Exchange, AIM and OFEX. He is the Chairman and Founder of OneSmartPlace and was a Council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1988 to 1996. He was managing partner of PRB Martin Pollins, based in Sussex, the first Accountancy firm to advertise on British television. He went on to create and launch the CharterGroup Partnership (the UK’s first Accountancy network) and then LawGroup UK (at the time, one of the largest networks of lawyers in the UK). In recent years, he helped to raise several £millions to fund British films such as The Da Vinci Code, Bridge of San Luis Rey, Head in the Clouds and Merchant of Venice with actors such as Charlize Theron, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, F. Murray Abraham. Kathy Bates, Gabriel Byrne, Geraldine Chaplin, Tom Hanks, Ian McKellen, Audrey Tautou, Penélope Cruz, Steven Berkoff, Lynn Collins, Jeremy Irons, Joseph Fiennes and many more. He has written several business publications (see https://onesmartplace.com/resources/)

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