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Know the Facts – British Courts

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Introduction[1]

The Court system in the United Kingdom varies across its constituent countries, reflecting their distinct legal systems. Each system is tailored to the specific legal traditions and requirements of its country. Scotland’s legal system, in particular, is quite different to that of England and Wales, reflecting its unique historical and legal heritage. By way of introduction:

  • Wales – The court system in Wales is largely integrated with that of England. The information later (below) about English courts generally also applies to Wales, including the structure and types of courts like the Crown Court, Magistrates’ Courts, and the Court of Appeal.
  • Scotland – Scotland has a separate legal system. Its highest civil court is the Court of Session, while the High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court. The Sheriff Courts are the main criminal and civil courts, handling most cases.
  • Northern Ireland – Northern Ireland also has its own legal system. The Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland includes the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and the Crown Court. Magistrates’ Courts and County Courts also operate, handling lesser civil and criminal matters.
  • England – In England, the court and tribunal system is multifaceted, designed to handle various areas of law (jurisdictions) and different case complexities. The key jurisdictions include
    –  Criminal
    –  Civil
    –  Family
    –  Tribunals
    –  Military
    –  Coroners

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Overview
A list of various courts in England & Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland, along with their general locations, powers, and purposes, is as follows:

England & Wales:

  • Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
    –  Location: London
    –  Powers and Purpose: It is the highest court in the UK and hears cases of the greatest public or constitutional importance.
  • Court of Appeal (England & Wales)
    –      Location: Various cities, including London
    –  Powers and Purpose: Hears appeals from lower courts and deals with civil, criminal, and family cases.
  • High Court (England & Wales)
    –  Location: Various cities, including London
    –  Powers and Purpose: Deals with complex and high-value civil cases and also handles criminal cases of significant importance.
  • Crown Court (England & Wales)
    –  Location: Throughout England & Wales
    –  Powers and Purpose: Deals with serious criminal cases, including trials by jury.
  • Magistrates’ Court (England & Wales)
    –  Location: Throughout England & Wales
    –  Powers and Purpose: Handles less serious criminal cases, as well as some civil matters.

Scotland:

  • Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (Scotland jurisdiction)
    –  Location: Edinburgh
    –  Powers and Purpose: Hears civil cases of the highest importance in Scotland.
  • Court of Session
    –  Location: Edinburgh
    –  Powers and Purpose: The highest civil court in Scotland, handling a wide range of civil cases.
  • High Court of Justiciary
    –  Location: Edinburgh and Glasgow
    –  Powers and Purpose: The highest criminal court in Scotland, dealing with serious criminal cases, including murder trials.
  • Sheriff Court
    –  Location: Throughout Scotland
    –  Powers and Purpose: Hears a wide range of civil and criminal cases, including lower-level criminal offences and small claims.

Northern Ireland:

  • Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (Northern Ireland jurisdiction)
    –  Location: Belfast
    –  Powers and Purpose: Hears cases of the greatest public or constitutional importance in Northern Ireland.
  • High Court (Northern Ireland)
    –  Location: Belfast
    –  Powers and Purpose: Deals with complex civil cases and also handles criminal cases of significant importance.
  • Crown Court (Northern Ireland)
    –  Location: Throughout Northern Ireland
    –  Powers and Purpose: Handles serious criminal cases, including trials by jury.
  • Magistrates’ Court (Northern Ireland)
    –  Location: Throughout Northern Ireland
    –  Powers and Purpose: Handles less serious criminal cases and some civil matters.

Specialised Courts
Here’s some additional information about specialised courts and tribunals in each jurisdiction:

England & Wales:

  • Family Court
    –  Purpose: Deals with family law matters, including divorce, child custody, and domestic violence cases.
  • Employment Tribunal
    –  Purpose: Handles employment-related disputes, such as unfair dismissals and discrimination claims.
  • Tribunals (Various)
    –  Purpose: Various tribunals exist for specific areas of law, including immigration, tax, and social security, to resolve disputes in those areas.

Scotland:

  • Sheriff Personal Injury Court
    –  Purpose: Specialised court for personal injury claims.
  • Land Court
    –  Purpose: Deals with land and property disputes, including agricultural matters.
  • Children’s Hearings
    –  Purpose: Focuses on cases involving the welfare and protection of children.
  • Scottish Land Tribunal
    –  Purpose: Resolves disputes related to land and property, including agricultural and crofting issues.

Northern Ireland:

  • Coroners’ Court
    –  Purpose: Investigate and determine the causes of certain deaths, particularly those that are sudden, suspicious, or unexplained.
  • Industrial Tribunals
    –  Purpose: Deals with employment-related disputes, similar to the Employment Tribunal in England & Wales.
  • Fair Employment Tribunal
    –  Purpose: Addresses cases related to fair employment and discrimination in Northern Ireland.
  • Immigration and Asylum Tribunals
    –  Purpose: Deals with immigration and asylum-related matters, including appeals against immigration decisions.
  • Lands Tribunal for Northern Ireland
    –  Purpose: Resolves disputes concerning land and property, including valuation and compensation claims.

These specialised courts and tribunals cater to specific legal areas and provide expertise in handling cases related to their respective jurisdictions. The list provided here is not exhaustive, as other specialised tribunals and courts are depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the cases.

Please note that this is a simplified overview, and there are additional specialised courts and tribunals in each jurisdiction for specific areas of law and dispute resolution.

The English System
The hierarchy within each jurisdiction ranges from lower-level courts addressing less serious matters to higher courts that handle more serious cases and appeals. The most senior courts oversee appeals from lower courts across all jurisdictions.

Historically, some courts mentioned in ICLR.4 reports[2] may no longer exist or have been renamed. More information on these can be found in the article on Older Courts and Tribunals, and a comprehensive structure chart is available on the Judiciary website.[3]

Appellate Courts [4]

  • UK Supreme Court – Established in 2009, it replaced the House of Lords as the ultimate appellate court for civil cases in the UK and criminal cases from England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It is headed by a President and Deputy President. For more details, visit the UK Supreme Court website.[5]
  • Privy Council – Shares the same building and judges as the UK Supreme Court but hears appeals from UK overseas territories, Crown dependencies, and certain Commonwealth countries. Visit the Privy Council website[6] for more information.
  • Court of Appeal – Divided into Criminal and Civil Divisions, it hears appeals from lower courts, including Crown Court, High Court, Family Court, senior tribunals, and county courts. Key judges include the Lord Chief Justice, Master of the Rolls, and Presidents of different divisions. The Court of Appeal[7] is the highest court within the Senior Courts of England and Wales and deals only with appeals from other courts or tribunals. It is based at the Royal Courts of Justice in London.

Criminal Courts

  • Crown Court – Handles serious criminal offences, sentencing, and appeals from magistrates’ courts, with judges ranging from High Court judges to Recorders.[8] The Crown Court is a single entity which sits in several locations. Its most famous and senior location is the Central Criminal Court (CCC) at Old Bailey in London, often referred to simply as The Bailey. The Crown Court deals with sentencing in cases where the defendant has either already pleaded guilty or has been convicted and referred for sentencing by a magistrate’s court because of the relative seriousness of the offence. It also hears appeals from magistrates’ courts. Most trials in the Crown Court are conducted with a jury. Depending on the type of case, the judge will be either a High Court judge (J), a Circuit Judge (HHJ), or a Recorder.
  • Magistrates’ Courts – Oversees most criminal cases, handling less serious offences, pre-trial issues, and referring serious cases to the Crown Court.
  • Youth Courts – Specialised magistrates’ courts for offenders under 18, except homicide cases. They operate with less formality and have reporting restrictions. A Youth Court deals with all criminal cases involving juveniles (aged under 18) except for homicide, which has to go to the Crown Court. The sentences imposed by youth courts are specially designed to deal with the needs of young offenders. Press members may attend hearings in a youth court, but they are subject to reporting restrictions to protect the defendant’s anonymity.

Civil Courts

  • High Court – Comprises King’s Bench, Chancery, and Family Divisions, each dealing with specific types of civil cases. The King’s Bench handles general civil disputes, the Chancery Division covers areas like company law and trusts, and the Family Division deals with matrimonial and child welfare cases.
  • County Courts – Address local, less significant civil cases. The introduction of Civil Procedure Rules in 1998 unified procedures across civil courts.

Court of Protection
The Court of Protection (CoP) makes decisions about financial matters and welfare, including medical care, for people who cannot do so themselves. It is not technically a part of the Family Division of the High Court but a separate institution with a jurisdiction founded on the Mental Capacity Act 2005 and its own set of procedural rules. It shares a building and many features with the Family Division, and the President of the Family Division (P) is also the President of the Court of Protection (P).[9] There is also a Deputy President of the Court of Protection. The other judges in the Court of Protection are High Court judges, deputy High Court Judges, Circuit Judges and District Judges.

For more information, see the Court of Protection website.[10]

Business and Property Courts
From June 2017, the specialist civil courts were grouped as the Business and Property Courts of England and Wales. This group combines many of the specialist courts listed above under the King’s Bench and Chancery Divisions and sits in the Rolls Building in London and centres around the country, including Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, Bristol and Cardiff, with plans for extension.

The Courts decide specialist business and other civil international dispute resolution and business cases in England and Wales, whether domestic or international.

For more information, see the Business and Property Courts website.[11]

Magistrates’ Courts
Magistrates deal with over 90% of criminal cases. The criminal jurisdiction of magistrates’ courts consists of:

  • Deciding less serious cases, known as summary offences.
  • Deciding medium serious offences, referred to as ‘triable either way’, unless the defendant insists on their right to trial in the Crown Court.
  • Dealing with pre-trial issues concerning the most serious offences, such as bail, reporting restrictions, etc.
  • Magistrates’ courts also deal with family cases.
  • Sending cases in which the defendant has pleaded or been found guilty to the Crown Court for sentencing if their own sentencing powers are insufficient.

Cases in a magistrates’ court are heard either by a bench of three magistrates, or Justices of the Peace, or by a single District Judge or Deputy District Judge. Justices of the Peace (or JPs) are adult volunteers from the local community who decide cases that don’t involve complex questions of law. They need not have formal legal qualification but receive advice on matters of law and practice by a legally qualified justices’ clerk. The main one, who sits in the middle and presides over the proceedings, is described as the chair.

District Judges are full-time members of the judiciary and are generally assigned more complex cases in the magistrates’ court.

An appeal from a magistrates’ court can go either to the Crown Court or, if it involves a procedural error, to the Administrative Court (part of the Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court).

For further information about Magistrates’ Courts, see their website.[12]

Tribunals

  • Employment Tribunals – Resolves employment law disputes, with variations in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
  • Employment Appeal Tribunal – Acts as an appellate body for employment tribunal decisions.
  • Competition Appeal Tribunal – Hears appeals related to competition law and regulatory decisions.
  • First-tier and Upper Tribunals – Handles various administrative disputes, with the Upper Tribunal hearing appeals from the First-tier Tribunal.

HM Courts and Tribunals Service is responsible for the administration of criminal, civil and family courts and tribunals in England and Wales. For information about Tribunals, please visit their website.[13]

Military Courts
The Military Court Service provides a criminal court for the Royal Navy, Army and Royal Air Force in the Court Martial, Summary Appeal and Service Civilian Court.

  • Court Martial – Tries members of the armed forces for service offences and operates in several locations, including overseas.
  • Court Martial Appeal Court – Hears appeals from the Court Martial.
  • Summary Appeal Court – Reviews summary decisions by commanding officers.
  • Service Civilian Court – Deals with service law offences committed by civilians outside the British Isles.

For more information about the Military Court Service, please visit their website.[14]

Coroners’ Courts
Coroners’ Courts operate independently, investigating sudden, violent, or unnatural deaths. Headed by the Chief (or ‘Senior’) Coroner, they are not part of the unified court system. Decisions from coroners’ courts can be challenged through specific legal procedures but don’t allow direct appeals. Coroners are independent judicial officeholders, similar to a specialist judge investigating and explaining certain kinds of deaths. Unlike the rest of the judiciary, they are appointed by local authorities.

There are currently 83 coroner areas across England and Wales, and each jurisdiction is locally funded. The office of the coroner was formally established in 1194, originally as a form of tax collector. Since the 12th century, the role has evolved. Today, the role of the Coroner is to investigate deaths if they have reason to suspect that the death was violent or unnatural, the cause of death is unknown, or the deceased died while in state detention.

Please visit the Courts and Tribunals Judiciary website for more information (© copyright acknowledged) about the Coroners’ Courts.[15]

Administration and Operation
The administration and operation of the courts in the United Kingdom are overseen and managed by different bodies depending on the level of the court and the jurisdiction. Here’s a general overview:

England & Wales:

  • The Lord Chief Justice is the head of the judiciary in England & Wales and plays a significant role in the administration of justice. They are responsible for judicial leadership and policy matters within the judiciary.
  • The Judicial Office for England & Wales supports the judiciary by managing judicial appointments, providing administrative support, and overseeing court operations.

Scotland:

  • In Scotland, the Lord President of the Court of Session is the head of the judiciary. The Lord Justice Clerk also plays a prominent role in judicial leadership.
  • The Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service (SCTS) is responsible for the administration and management of the courts and tribunals in Scotland.

Northern Ireland:

  • The Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland serves as the head of the judiciary in Northern Ireland.
  • The Northern Ireland Courts and Tribunals Service (NICTS) is responsible for the administration and management of the courts and tribunals in Northern Ireland.

These judicial bodies and administrative organisations work together to ensure the efficient and effective functioning of the courts, including the appointment of judges, allocation of resources, and the overall administration of justice in their respective jurisdictions.

More Information about Courts
For more detailed information and the latest updates on the structure and functioning of British courts and tribunals, visit the Judiciary website (see above) and explore other relevant legal resources listed in the end notes.[16]

Courts of law, in some form or other, have existed for thousands of years, with their origins traceable back to ancient civilisations. The exact timeline can vary depending on the region and culture:

  • Ancient Mesopotamia (around 3000 BC): Some of the earliest evidence of legal codes and, thus, court-like systems comes from ancient Mesopotamia, particularly with the Code of Ur-Nammu[17] and later the Code of Hammurabi.[18]  These codes detailed laws and procedures for handling disputes and administering justice.
  • Ancient Egypt (around the same period): Ancient Egypt also had a system for legal adjudication, with judges and a legal process overseen by officials appointed by the Pharaoh.
  • Ancient India (by 1500 BC): Ancient Indian texts, such as the Rigveda,[19] indicate the existence of judicial mechanisms. Detailed legal frameworks and court systems were later codified in texts like the Manusmriti.[20]
  • Ancient China (around 1000 BC): China had a well-developed legal system with appointed judges and a complex set of laws, which evolved over the dynasties, starting from the time of the Zhou Dynasty.
  • Ancient Greece (by the 7th Century BC): The Greeks, particularly in Athens, developed an early form of democratic justice system with courts comprising citizen jurors. The legal reforms of Draco and later Solon laid the foundations for these courts.[21]
  • Ancient Rome (from around the 8th Century BC): The Roman legal system, beginning with the Law of the Twelve Tables,[22] was highly influential. Roman courts developed advanced legal principles that have influenced many modern legal systems.

Each of these ancient systems had its own unique characteristics and evolved differently, but they all shared the common purpose of adjudicating disputes and enforcing laws, which are the fundamental roles of courts.

Online Courts in Britain
Online courts in Britain represent a significant modernisation of the judicial system, leveraging technology to improve access to justice, efficiency, and the overall functioning of legal processes. Here’s an in-depth look at their development, operation, and impact:

Background and Development

  • Initiation and Purpose: The concept of online courts in Britain emerged as part of a broader reform in the justice system. The aim was to make legal proceedings more accessible, affordable, and easier to understand for the public.
  • Funding and Planning: The UK government allocated significant funding for the modernization of courts and tribunals, with online courts being a key component. The reforms were planned in response to the growing need for a more efficient and cost-effective legal system.
  • Implementation and Operation.
  • Types of Cases Handled: Online courts primarily handle civil, family, and some criminal cases. They are designed to manage less complex cases that don’t necessarily require physical presence in a courtroom.
  • Process and Procedures: The process in an online court typically involves the electronic filing of documents, virtual hearings through video conferencing, and online case management systems. This setup allows parties to engage with the court system remotely.
  • Role of Judiciary and Lawyers: Judges and lawyers operate within this digital framework, adapting traditional legal processes to an online environment. This includes virtual hearings, digital evidence presentations, and online deliberations.

Advantages and Challenges

  • Accessibility and Convenience: Online courts make the legal process more accessible to people, eliminating the need for physical travel and reducing the time and expenses involved in court proceedings.
  • Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness: They offer a more efficient handling of cases, with quicker resolution times and reduced operational costs.
  • Technology and Security: The success of online courts hinges on robust and secure technology platforms, ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of legal proceedings.
  • Challenges: There are concerns about digital exclusion for those who lack access to technology or are not tech-savvy. Additionally, there are debates about the effectiveness of online courts in handling complex cases or ensuring procedural fairness.

Impact and Future Outlook

  • Impact on Legal Profession: Online courts are leading to a transformation in legal practice, requiring new skills and adaptations from legal professionals.
  • Public Reception: While there’s an appreciation for the convenience and efficiency, some scepticism remains regarding the impersonal nature of online proceedings and potential issues with technology.
  • Future Developments: The ongoing development of online courts is likely to include enhancements in technology, broader scope of cases handled, and continuous adaptations based on feedback and legal requirements.
  • COVID-19 Pandemic Influence.
  • Acceleration of Adoption: The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of online courts. The restrictions on physical gatherings necessitated a rapid shift to remote hearings and digital case management.
  • Lessons Learned: The pandemic period provided valuable insights into the capabilities and limitations of online legal proceedings, informing future improvements and adaptations.

Online courts in Britain represent a transformative approach to legal proceedings, aligning with the demands of the digital age. While they offer significant benefits in terms of accessibility and efficiency, they also pose challenges and require ongoing adjustments to ensure they meet the standards of fairness and justice traditionally upheld by the physical court system. Whether and how artificial intelligence (AI) can be used in the context of online courts remains to be seen.

It seems clear that a new way to administer justice is already here and growing fast. There is already Online Divorce, Online Probate, and at least two largely Online Tribunals. The criminal courts are moving online from paper at a spectacular rate. Aspects of the work of the UK Supreme Court are now online. Nor is the concept of an online court or tribunal only confined to England.

Reading List (in Alphabetical Order)

A person in a judge's gown Description automatically generated

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End Notes and Explanations

  1. Source: Compiled from research using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com. Picture Credit: the picture of a Judge depicted at the end of the text of this paper was provided by DALL·E 2 – an AI system that can create realistic images and art from a description in natural language. ↑
  2. Explanation: ICLR.4 refers to a version or edition of legal reports published by the Incorporated Council of Law Reporting for England and Wales (ICLR). The ICLR is a significant organisation in the United Kingdom known for producing authoritative law reports. These reports are crucial for legal professionals as they provide reliable and comprehensive summaries of judicial decisions from various courts in England and Wales. The designation “4” in ICLR.4 is thought to denote a specific series or edition of these reports. Law reports from the ICLR are used for reference by legal practitioners, academics, and students to understand legal precedents and the reasoning behind judicial decisions. They often include summaries of the facts of the case, the legal arguments presented, the judges’ decisions, and the legal principles applied. ↑
  3. Structure of the Courts & Tribunals system – Courts and Tribunals Judiciary, at: https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/court-structure/ ↑
  4. Explanation: “Appellate courts” are courts that have the authority to review and decide on appeals against decisions made by lower courts. They don’t conduct trials or hear evidence anew; instead, they focus on legal issues, determining whether the law was correctly applied and whether the legal process was properly followed in the original trial. Their decisions can affirm, modify, or reverse the lower court’s judgment. Appellate courts play a crucial role in ensuring consistency and fairness in the legal system, as they interpret and enforce legal precedents and standards. An appellate court, is commonly called a court of appeal, appeal court, court of second instance or second instance court, is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. ↑
  5. At: https://www.supremecourt.uk/ ↑
  6. At: https://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/ ↑
  7. See: https://www.judiciary.uk/courts-and-tribunals/court-of-appeal-home/ ↑
  8. Explanation: Recorders may sit in both Crown and County Courts, but most start by sitting in the Crown Court. Their jurisdiction is broadly like that of a circuit judge, but they will generally handle less complex or serious matters coming before the court. Recorders are required to manage cases actively as well as to determine claims at trial. A recorder’s duties include assisting the parties to prepare for trial, presiding over court proceedings and delivering judgments in both applications and contested trials. ↑
  9. Explanation: when the text says: “the President of the Family Division (P) is also President of the Court of Protection (P),” it means the same individual holds both positions simultaneously, and the “(P)” is shorthand for their title as President in both roles. This is a common way to concisely indicate official titles or roles in legal and governmental contexts. ↑
  10. See: https://www.gov.uk/courts-tribunals/court-of-protection ↑
  11. See: https://www.gov.uk/courts-tribunals/the-business-and-property-courts ↑
  12. See: https://www.judiciary.uk/courts-and-tribunals/magistrates-courts/ ↑
  13. See: https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/hm-courts-and-tribunals-service/about#our-tribunals ↑
  14. See: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/the-military-court-service ↑
  15. See: https://www.judiciary.uk/courts-and-tribunals/coroners-courts/coroners/ ↑
  16. See: Courts of England & Wales (Wikipedia) at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales

    and Structure of the Courts & Tribunals system – Courts and Tribunals Judiciary at: https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/court-structure/ ↑

  17. Explanation: The Code of Ur-Nammu is the oldest known law code surviving today. It is from Mesopotamia and is written on tablets, in the Sumerian language c. 2100–2050 BC. ↑
  18. Explanation: The Code (Laws) of Hammurabi, dated to around 1754 BC, is one of the oldest deciphered writings of any significant length in the world. The laws were not merely laws as we understand them today but more like case verdicts, setting precedents for judges when deciding cases. ↑
  19. Explanation: The Rigveda, composed between 1500 and 1200 BC, is one of the oldest and most revered texts in Hinduism, forming a crucial part of the Vedas. Written in ancient Sanskrit, it consists of 1,028 hymns dedicated to various deities, embodying a range of themes from cosmology to philosophy. Its profound influence extends beyond religious rituals to shaping aspects of Indian culture, language, and philosophical thought. ↑
  20. Explanation: The Manusmriti, also known as the Laws of Manu, is an ancient legal text and one of the most important works in the Dharmashastra tradition in Hinduism. Composed around 200 AD, it outlines various aspects of daily life, ethical conduct, social norms, and legal principles for individuals and society. The text has been influential in shaping traditional Hindu social structure but is also controversial for its rigid caste-based system and gender roles. ↑
  21. Explanation: Draco was an ancient Athenian lawmaker, famous for introducing a written legal code around 621 BC, known for its harshness; hence the term ‘Draconian’ is used to describe severe laws. His laws were the first to distinguish between voluntary and involuntary homicide and were known for prescribing death as a punishment for most offences. Solon, another Athenian statesman and lawmaker who lived about a century after Draco, is remembered for his efforts to reform Draco’s harsh legislation and mitigate social and economic inequalities in Athens. Solon’s reforms, which included the abolition of debt slavery and the creation of new classes of citizenship based on wealth rather than birth, laid the foundation for Athenian democracy. ↑
  22. Explanation: The Law of the Twelve Tables, developed in ancient Rome around 450 BC, represents one of the earliest attempts to create a codified system of law. It was a compilation of existing customs and legal principles, established to prevent the patrician class from exploiting legal practices against the plebeians. The Twelve Tables covered various aspects of civil, criminal, and religious law, serving as the foundation for Roman law and influencing legal systems in subsequent Western societies. ↑

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Martin Pollins

Martin Pollins is a Chartered Accountant and MBA with wide experience in corporate finance and business management. He has served on the boards of several companies, including those listed on the London Stock Exchange, AIM and OFEX. He is the Chairman and Founder of OneSmartPlace and was a Council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1988 to 1996. He was managing partner of PRB Martin Pollins, based in Sussex, the first Accountancy firm to advertise on British television. He went on to create and launch the CharterGroup Partnership (the UK’s first Accountancy network) and then LawGroup UK (at the time, one of the largest networks of lawyers in the UK). In recent years, he helped to raise several £millions to fund British films such as The Da Vinci Code, Bridge of San Luis Rey, Head in the Clouds and Merchant of Venice with actors such as Charlize Theron, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, F. Murray Abraham. Kathy Bates, Gabriel Byrne, Geraldine Chaplin, Tom Hanks, Ian McKellen, Audrey Tautou, Penélope Cruz, Steven Berkoff, Lynn Collins, Jeremy Irons, Joseph Fiennes and many more. He has written several business publications (see https://onesmartplace.com/resources/)

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