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The Assyrians – the Rise and Fall of their Empire

Introduction[1]

In the annals of ancient history, few empires have left such an indelible mark as the Assyrian Empire. Emerging from the northern reaches of Mesopotamia, generally regarded as a cradle of civilisation, this empire redefined the landscape of the Near East through its unparalleled military prowess, sophisticated administration, and rich cultural contributions. Spanning from the 25th century BC to its dramatic fall in 612 BC, the Assyrian Empire’s story is one of remarkable ascension, vast territorial conquests, and an eventual decline that echoes through history.

Nestled along the Tigris River, the heartland of Assyria was strategically and conveniently positioned to become a dominant force. From the early city-state of Ashur to the sprawling metropolis of Nineveh, the Assyrians built not just cities but a legacy that combined fierce military campaigns with extraordinary administrative efficiency and cultural achievements. This empire was not merely a coalition of territories held together by force; it was a complex and multifaceted civilisation, marked by its pioneering use of technology in warfare, a highly organised bureaucratic system, and profound devotion to its pantheon of gods, led by Ashur.


Citation: Assyria. (2023, December 25). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria
Description: 7th-century BC relief depicting Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC) and two royal attendants
Attribution: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg), CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons

Yet, the story of Assyria is also one of contrasts and paradoxes. Renowned for their architectural grandeur and contributions to art, literature, and law, the Assyrians were equally feared for their ruthless military tactics and the terror they instilled in conquered peoples. Their impact extended far beyond their imperial zenith, influencing subsequent empires and leaving a legacy that continues to fascinate scholars, historians, and enthusiasts of ancient history.

Share with me a journey back in time as we delve into the rise and fall of this ancient empire, uncovering not just the chronicles of kings and conquests but also gaining insights into the human endeavour in the realms of power, culture, and identity. The Assyrian Empire’s narrative is a testament to the enduring complexities of human civilisation.

Societal Structure and Population in Ancient Assyria[2]
Most of Assyria’s inhabitants were farmers who worked on land owned by their families. Ancient Assyrian society was initially divided into two primary classes: slaves, known as “subrum,” and free citizens, referred to as “awīlum” or “DUMU Aššur” (sons of Ashur). The free citizens were further divided into “rabi” (big) and “ṣaher” (small) members of the city assembly.


Image Credit: An illustration depicting ancient Assyrian farmers working on their family-owned land, showcasing the agrarian lifestyle of most Assyrian inhabitants.
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, January 2024

Over Time, Assyrian society became more complex and hierarchical, especially during the Middle Assyrian Empire. Among the lower classes, the highest were the free men (“a’ılū”), who could receive land for government services but couldn’t live on these smaller lands. Below them were the “unfree men” (“šiluhlu̮”), who voluntarily entered service to others in exchange for provisions like clothing and rations. This condition was different from slavery as unfree people could regain freedom and were considered the property of the government, not individual employers. Other lower-class groups included “ālāyû” (village residents), “ālik ilke” (recruits through the ilku system), and “hupšu,” whose exact social roles are unclear.

Continuity in Neo-Assyrian Period
This social structure largely continued into the Neo-Assyrian period. Below the upper classes were free citizens, semi-free labourers, and slaves. Social mobility was possible through service to the state, and individual achievements could elevate a family’s status for generations. Assyrian society also included larger family groups or “clans,” forming significant tribal communities within the empire, often residing near their agricultural lands.

Slavery
Slavery was a common aspect of ancient Near Eastern societies, including Assyria. There were mainly two types of slaves: chattel slaves, mostly foreigners captured in wars or as spoils, and debt slaves, who were initially free but couldn’t repay debts. Children of slaves usually inherited their enslaved status, although alternative agreements could change this. Although slaves’ ethnic origins are less frequently mentioned in Assyrian texts compared to Old Babylonian texts, it was not a significant factor in their slavery status. The number of slaves in Assyria was not a large percentage of the population. The term “wardum” was used for slaves in Akkadian, but it could also refer to free servants or officials, indicating a nuanced understanding of servitude in Assyrian society.


Description: The “Mask of Sargon of Akkad” (dated circa 2250 BC) was found in 1931 in Nineveh: it was probably mutilated during the destruction of Nineveh by the Medes and Babylonians in 612 BC.
Citation: Battle of Nineveh (612 BC). (22/11/2023)
In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(612_BC)

Key Facts
Assyria was an ancient Mesopotamian kingdom and empire that existed in the Near East. It was located in the region that today encompasses parts of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran. The Assyrian Empire had several phases, starting from the early Assyrian period around 2500 BC through to the Neo-Assyrian Empire[3], which is often regarded as its peak, lasting from 911 to 609 BC.

  • Neo-Assyrian Empire: The Neo-Assyrian Empire is known for being one of the first true empires in history, marked by a highly organised, centralised government. It was the largest empire in the world up to that time.
  • Capital Cities: The Assyrians built several renowned cities, including Ashur, Nimrud (Kalhu), Nineveh, and Dur-Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad). Nineveh, in particular, became one of the largest cities in the world during the 7th century BC.
  • Military and Warfare: The Assyrians are often remembered for their prowess in warfare and were known for their advanced military technology and tactics. They were one of the first to use iron weaponry extensively. Their military was highly disciplined, and they employed psychological warfare, siege warfare, and terror tactics.
  • Culture and Achievements: The Assyrians made significant contributions to Mesopotamian art and architecture. Their palaces were elaborately decorated with large, detailed stone reliefs depicting war, hunting, and courtly life. They also contributed to the development of cuneiform, one of the earliest systems of writing.
  • Religion: The Assyrian religion was polytheistic, worshipping a pantheon of Mesopotamian gods. Ashur, the chief god, was particularly important, and the empire’s expansion was often seen as a divine mission.
  • Decline and Fall: The fall of the Assyrian Empire is often attributed to a combination of internal strife, overextension, and invasions by a coalition of enemies, including the Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, and Scythians. The final blow was the sacking of Nineveh in 612 BC.
  • Legacy: The Assyrian Empire had a lasting impact on the Near East. After its fall, its culture and innovations influenced successive empires. Assyriology, the study of Assyrian history and culture, remains an important field in ancient Near Eastern studies.

Origin and Rise: Overview

History
Assyria’s history is a testament to the complexities of ancient civilisations, showcasing impressive achievements in governance, military strategy, art, and architecture. Its history is fascinating and complex, and it played a significant role in the ancient Near East.

  • Early Beginnings: Assyria, named after its original capital city, Assur (also spelt Ashur), originated as a city-state in northern Mesopotamia around the 25th century BC. It was one of the earliest urban civilisations in the region, contemporaneous with the more southernly Sumerian city-states.
  • Old Assyrian Period (c. 2025-1378 BC): This era saw the establishment of Assyria as a kingdom. The Assyrians were initially under the influence of the Sumerian and Akkadian empires. They started to exert their own influence and expand their territory during this period, especially through trade.
  • Middle Assyrian Period (c. 1365-1050 BC): This period was marked by a significant expansion and consolidation of power. Assyrian kings like Tiglath-Pileser I pushed the boundaries of the empire, making Assyria a major power in the Near East.

Peak and Expansion

  • Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC): This is the period when Assyria became the largest empire the world had seen up to that point. It stretched from Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea to Persia and from the Caucasus Mountains (Georgia, Armenia) to the Arabian Peninsula.
  • Innovations and Administration: The Assyrians were known for their innovations in military tactics and state organisation. They used siege engines, cavalry, and iron weapons. Administratively, they divided their empire into provinces, each governed by a loyal local ruler or Assyrian official.
  • Cultural Achievements: Assyria also made significant contributions to art and architecture, with impressive palaces and reliefs and the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh[4], which held a vast collection of cuneiform texts.

Decline and Fall

  • Internal Strife and External Pressures: The decline of Assyria began in the late 7th century BC due to internal revolts, economic troubles, and external pressures from new powers like the Medes[5], Babylonians, and Scythians[6].
  • Fall of Nineveh (612 BC): The fall of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, in 612 BC to a coalition of Babylonians, Medes, and others marked the end of the Assyrian Empire. The remnants of Assyria were eventually absorbed into the Persian Empire.

Legacy
Assyria’s legacy is seen in its impact on the military, administrative practices, art, and culture of subsequent empires in the region. Its history is essential for understanding the broader history of the ancient Near East.

Becoming an Empire
The transformation of Assyria from a city-state into an empire was a gradual process that took place over several centuries. The key phases in this transition were:

Early Expansion (c. 2025-1378 BC): Old Assyrian Period

  • Initial Growth: During the Old Assyrian Period, Assyria began as a city-state centred around the city of Assur. This period was characterised by the development of trade networks, particularly with Anatolia, which laid the foundation for Assyrian expansion.
  • Political Development: Although still not an empire, Assyria was growing in regional influence through its trade and diplomatic relations.

Establishment of an Empire (c. 1365-1050 BC): Middle Assyrian Period

  • Military Expansion and Centralisation: The Middle Assyrian Period is when Assyria truly began to take the form of an empire. Kings like Ashur-uballit I (1365-1330 BC) and Tiglath-Pileser I (1114-1076 BC) expanded Assyrian territory through military conquests. They exerted direct control over neighbouring regions, a key characteristic of an empire.
  • Legal and Administrative Systems: This period also saw the development of a more sophisticated legal and administrative system to manage the expanding territories.

Peak and Further Expansion (911-609 BC): Neo-Assyrian Empire

  • Maximal Expansion: The Neo-Assyrian Empire represents the height of Assyrian power and territorial extent. This period witnessed the most extensive expansion, making it the largest empire in the world at that time.
  • Key Figures: Notable emperors like Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC), Sargon II (722–705 BC), and Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC) played significant roles in expanding and consolidating the empire.
  • Military and Administrative Innovations: Assyria became renowned for its powerful army and innovative siege techniques. The empire was organised into provinces governed by local rulers or Assyrian officials, a system that allowed for effective control over vast territories.

Recognition as an Empire

  • Military Might and Administrative Sophistication: Its military prowess, territorial expansion, and administrative sophistication were key in establishing Assyria as an empire.
  • Cultural and Economic Influence: Assyria’s influence also spread culturally and economically, impacting the entire Near East.

In summary, Assyria’s transition into an empire began in the Middle Assyrian Period (c. 1365-1050 BC) with significant territorial expansion and centralisation of power. However, it was during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC) that Assyria reached its zenith in terms of territorial extent, military might, and administrative complexity. This period is often viewed as the pinnacle of Assyrian imperial power.

The Rise
The rise of the Assyrian Empire, particularly during the Neo-Assyrian period, is a pivotal chapter in ancient Near Eastern history, marked by aggressive expansion, sophisticated administration, and cultural achievements. Here’s how the Empire rose to prominence:


Image Credit: portrait depicts an illustration of Assyrian soldiers in formation with a background of ancient Mesopotamian architecture.
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, January 2024

Geographical and Cultural Foundations

  • Location: Assyria was situated in the upper Tigris River region of Mesopotamia, an area conducive to agriculture and trade. This geographic advantage provided a stable economic base and strategic position for expansion.
  • Assyrian Society: A warrior culture underpinned by a strong military ethos was central to Assyrian society. This aspect was crucial for their expansionist policies.

Early Expansion (Old and Middle Assyrian Periods)

  • Old Assyrian Period (c. 2025-1378 BC): Early expansion was mainly economic, driven by extensive trade networks, especially with Anatolia[7]. This period laid the groundwork for later territorial expansion.
  • Middle Assyrian Period (c. 1365-1050 BC): Assyrian kings like Ashur-uballit I began exerting military power beyond Assyrian city limits, conquering neighbouring regions like Babylonia.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC): Peak Expansion

  • Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC): He undertook numerous military campaigns, significantly expanding Assyrian territory. He was brutal in his pursuit of conquest. Ashurnasirpal II moved the capital to Calah (modern Nimrud) and built grand palaces, showcasing Assyria’s growing power.
  • Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC): Continued the expansionist policies of his father, Ashurnasirpal II. He is famous for the Battle of Qarqar and the Black Obelisk, which depicts his military campaigns and tributes paid by vassal states.
  • Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BC): A pivotal figure in Assyrian history, he revolutionised the army and administration. He also introduced a system of provincial governance, replacing vassal kingdoms with directly controlled provinces. He is considered one of the greatest Assyrian kings. He aggressively expanded the empire’s territory, including the conquest of Babylon.
  • Sargon II (722-705 BC)[8]: Continued the upward thrust of expansion, famously conquering the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BC and deporting its population, a tactic used to prevent rebellions.
  • Sennacherib (705-681 BC): Known for his military campaigns against Babylon and the kingdom of Judah. He moved the capital to Nineveh, where he built impressive structures, including the famous ‘Hanging Gardens’, although some historians attribute them to Babylon[9].
  • Esarhaddon (681-669 BC): Extended the empire to Egypt, although control over this region was tenuous and short-lived. He is also known for his building projects and efforts to stabilise the empire.
  • Ashurbanipal (668-627 BC): He was, perhaps, the most literate of the Assyrian kings and is known for his scholarly pursuits and the creation of the great library of Nineveh, which preserved much of the region’s literature and history. His reign saw the empire at its largest extent – but also the beginning of its decline.

Characteristics of Assyrian Monarchy
Divine Kingship: Assyrian kings were seen as representatives or chosen by the gods, particularly the national god Ashur. This belief was central to the Assyrian monarchy and was used to justify the king’s absolute power and conquests.

  • Military Leadership: Kings were expected to be military leaders, often leading their armies in campaigns. Military prowess was a key factor in maintaining their power and expanding the empire.
  • Building Projects: Many kings engaged in extensive building projects, constructing palaces, temples, and cities. These projects not only displayed the wealth and power of the king but also played a role in the empire’s administration and defence.
  • Administrative Reforms: Several kings, notably Tiglath-Pileser III, implemented significant administrative reforms to manage the expanding empire. This included the establishment of a more structured bureaucracy and provincial system.
  • Cultural Patronage: Assyrian kings were patrons of the arts and culture. They collected and preserved literature, promoted arts and architecture, and were responsible for some of the most impressive archaeological sites in the Near East.
  • Succession and Civil War: Succession was often a time of instability, sometimes leading to civil wars. This vulnerability was a significant factor in the empire’s eventual decline.

The Assyrian monarchy was characterised by its militaristic ethos, grandiose building projects, administrative efficiency, and cultural achievements. The kings, often larger-than-life figures, were pivotal in shaping the history of the Assyrian Empire and its impact on the ancient Near Eastern world.

Military Innovation and Administration
Military Tactics: The Assyrian army was the most effective force of its time, using advanced siege techniques, cavalry, and iron weapons.

  • Terror Tactics: They used psychological warfare, instilling fear to prevent rebellion. The brutal treatment of conquered peoples was part of this strategy.
  • Provincial System: Assyria developed an efficient administrative system to manage its vast empire, dividing it into provinces governed by appointed officials.

Battles Fought
The Assyrian Empire, known for its powerful army and military conquests, engaged in numerous significant battles throughout its history. Here is an overview of some of the key battles fought by the Assyrians:

  • Battle of Qarqar (853 BC): The Assyrians, led by King Shalmaneser III, fought against a coalition of Western states, including Israel, Aram-Damascus, Ammon, and others. The battle was part of the Assyrian campaign to assert dominance over the Levant.
  • Battle of Nihriya (c.1230 BC): This battle was fought between the Assyrians under Tukulti-Ninurta I and the Hittites. It was a significant conflict that occurred during the Assyrian conquest of Hittite territories.
  • Siege of Lachish (701 BC): As part of Sennacherib’s campaign against the Kingdom of Judah, the Assyrians besieged and captured the city of Lachish. This event is famously depicted in the Lachish reliefs found in Sennacherib’s palace.
  • Battle of Halule (691 BC): Fought between the Assyrian king Sennacherib and a coalition of Babylonians, Elamites, and other allies. The outcome of the battle is unclear, but it was part of the ongoing struggle for dominance in the region.
  • Siege of Jerusalem (701 BC): During the same campaign as the Siege of Lachish, Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem. The city did not fall, an event attributed by the biblical narrative to divine intervention.
  • Battle of Telaar (653 BC): This battle saw the Assyrian forces under Ashurbanipal fighting against the Elamite kingdom. The victory for Assyria led to the eventual downfall of Elam.
  • Battle of Nineveh (612 BC): This was a decisive battle in which a coalition of Medes, Babylonians, and Scythians besieged and eventually sacked Nineveh, leading to the fall of the Assyrian Empire.
  • Battle of Carchemish (605 BC): While this battle primarily involved the Egyptians and the Babylonians, it marked the end of the remaining Assyrian territories and influence. The Babylonians, led by Nebuchadnezzar II, defeated the Egyptian forces, effectively ending Assyrian hegemony in the region.


Jerusalem Delivered from Sennacherib, 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld
Attribution: Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

These battles are significant in understanding the military might and strategies of the Assyrian Empire, as well as its interactions with neighbouring civilisations. The Assyrians were known for their use of iron weapons, chariots, and siege warfare techniques, which contributed to their dominance in the Near East until the empire’s eventual decline.

Cultural and Economic Aspects

  • Cultural Achievements: The Assyrians excelled in art and architecture, with majestic grand palaces and elaborate reliefs.
  • Economy: The economy was bolstered by booty from conquests, tribute from vassal states, and trade.

Reasons for Expansion

  • Security and Resources: Initial expansion provided security and resources for a growing population.
  • Wealth and Power: As the empire expanded, the motivations included wealth, power, and the belief in the divine right of the king to rule the world.

The Decline
Despite its might, the Assyrian Empire began to decline towards the end of Ashurbanipal’s reign due to internal strife, overextension, and uprisings among subject peoples. The fall of Nineveh in 612 BC marked the end of Assyrian dominance.

In summary, the rise of the Assyrian Empire was a result of strategic geographical location, a militaristic and expansionist culture, innovative military tactics, efficient administrative systems, and significant cultural achievements. The Neo-Assyrian period represents the peak of Assyrian power, marked by the rule of several powerful kings who expanded the empire to unprecedented extents.

The Fall
The fall of the Assyrian Empire is a complex historical event that resulted from a combination of internal factors and external pressures. It occurred primarily towards the end of the 7th century BC. An overview of why, how, and when the empire fell is as follows:


The Israelites were one of the many peoples deported by the Assyrians.
Citation: Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. (2024, January 14). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire

Why: The Causes of the Decline

  • Overextension: At its height, the Assyrian Empire stretched from Egypt to the Persian Gulf. This vast territory was difficult to control and defend, leading to overextension of military and administrative resources.
  • Economic Strain: The costs of constant warfare and maintaining a large standing army, along with the expenses of monumental building projects, strained the empire’s treasury.
  • Rebellions and Unrest: The Assyrian policy of deportation and harsh treatment of conquered peoples led to widespread resentment. It often resulted in rebellions, which further drained resources.
  • Succession Issues and Internal Conflict: After the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC, there were several weak rulers and internal conflicts, including civil wars. This instability weakened the empire’s ability to respond to external threats.
  • Rise of New Powers: The emergence of new powers like the Medes, Babylonians, and Scythians posed a significant challenge to Assyrian dominance.

How: The Downfall Process

  • Initial Losses: The Assyrian Empire’s troubles began with losses in territories like Egypt and parts of the Levant, which were lost to the resurgent Babylonians and their allies.
  • Babylonian and Median Alliance: The decisive blow came from an alliance between the Babylonians and the Medes. They capitalised on Assyria’s weakened state and launched coordinated attacks.
  • Fall of Assur (614 BC): The ancient capital of Assur fell to the Medes in 614 BC, signalling a major shift in power.
  • Destruction of Nineveh (612 BC): The fall of Nineveh, the magnificent Assyrian capital, in 612 BC to the Babylonians and Medes marked the effective end of the Assyrian Empire. This event was catastrophic and symbolised the empire’s collapse.
  • Final Battles: After the fall of Nineveh, remnants of the Assyrian army and government continued to resist, but their last strongholds, like Harran and Carchemish, fell by 609 BC.

When: Timeline of the Fall

  • 627 BC: Death of Ashurbanipal, followed by internal strife.
  • 614 BC: Fall of Assur to the Medes.
  • 612 BC: Destruction of Nineveh – a key milestone in the collapse of the empire.
  • 609 BC: Loss of remaining territories; end of Assyrian power.

Legacy of the Fall

  • Cultural and Historical Impact: The fall of Assyria marked a significant shift in the balance of power in the ancient Near East. It allowed for the rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and later the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire.
  • Archaeological and Literary Records: The ruins of Nineveh and other Assyrian cities have provided valuable insights into Assyrian society, culture, and history. The fall of Nineveh was a momentous event that was recorded in several contemporary sources and later histories.

In summary, the fall of the Assyrian Empire was a result of a combination of internal weaknesses, economic strains, overextension, and the rise of powerful enemies. The destruction of Nineveh in 612 BC by the Medes and Babylonians was the proverbial ‘nail in the coffin’ and marked the definitive end of Assyrian dominance in the ancient Near East.

The Assyrian Military: their Conquests and Failures
The Assyrian military was one of the most formidable and effective fighting forces of the ancient world, known for its organisation, tactics, and the brutality of its campaigns. Its efficiency and brutality were key factors in Assyria’s rise to power, as well as in its ability to maintain control over a vast empire. Here’s an overview of the Assyrian military, its conquests, and its failures:

Characteristics of the Assyrian Military

  • Organisation: The Assyrian army was highly organised, divided into infantry, cavalry, and charioteers. They also had specialised units, such as engineers for siege warfare.
  • Innovations in Warfare: Assyrians were among the first to use iron weapons extensively, giving them an edge over enemies equipped with bronze. They also developed sophisticated siege techniques, including battering rams and siege towers.
  • Terror Tactics: Psychological warfare was a deliberate strategy. They used terror tactics to intimidate enemies, often depicting their brutality in reliefs and writings as a warning to potential rebels.
  • Logistics and Mobility: The Assyrians excelled in the logistics of moving large armies over long distances, ensuring a steady supply line and quick mobilisation.
  • Professional Soldiers: Unlike other ancient armies that relied heavily on conscription, the Assyrian army had a significant number of professional soldiers.

Major Conquests

  • Expansion under Tiglath-Pileser III: He reformed the army and led successful campaigns into Babylonia, Syria, and Israel, significantly expanding the empire.
  • Sargon II’s Conquests: His reign saw the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel and the subsequent deportation of its population.
  • Sennacherib’s Campaigns: Notable for his campaign against Judah and the siege of Jerusalem in 701 BC. His military campaigns were marked by significant destruction and deportations.
  • Ashurbanipal’s Reign: His conquests included Egypt and much of the Near East, although control over these territories was often tenuous.

Failures and Challenges

  • Overextension: As the empire expanded, it became increasingly difficult to control distant territories, leading to frequent rebellions and overstretching of military resources.
  • Economic Strain: Continuous warfare and maintaining a large standing army was financially draining.
  • Dependence on Military Success: The empire’s economy and political stability were heavily reliant on continuous military success and plunder, making it vulnerable during times of military failure.
  • Battle of Qarqar (853 BC): While not a decisive defeat, the Assyrians under Shalmaneser III faced a significant challenge from a coalition of Levantine states, highlighting the limitations of Assyrian power.
  • Fall of Nineveh (612 BC): The ultimate military failure was the fall of Nineveh, where a coalition of Babylonians and Medes, taking advantage of Assyria’s weakened state, captured and razed the city.

Military Legacy
The Assyrian military left a lasting impact on the art of warfare in the ancient world. Their innovations in siege technology, organisation, and tactics were emulated by subsequent empires.

The brutality and effectiveness of the Assyrian military also left a deep psychological imprint on the peoples of the Near East, as depicted in their art and recorded in the histories and literature of the time.

In summary, the Assyrian military was central to the empire’s rise to power, known for its discipline, innovation, and ruthlessness. While these attributes led to numerous conquests and the expansion of the Assyrian Empire to its zenith, they also contributed to its overextension, economic strain, and eventual collapse. The fall of Nineveh marked the end of Assyria’s military dominance in the ancient Near East.

Perspectives of Contemporaries and Conquered Peoples
While the Assyrian Empire is renowned for its military prowess and administrative excellence, it is crucial to consider the perspectives of their contemporaries and those they conquered to grasp the empire’s historical impact fully. These viewpoints provide a contrasting narrative to the Assyrian records, often highlighting the consequences of Assyrian expansion on various cultures and societies:

  • Voices from the Conquered Lands: Many of the regions conquered by the Assyrians, like Babylon, Israel, and Egypt, had their own rich histories and cultures. The Assyrian practice of deporting conquered peoples and resettling them across the empire led to significant cultural upheavals. For instance, the biblical account of the Assyrian conquest of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 BC, as recorded in the Old Testament, speaks to the trauma and dislocation experienced by the Israelites. Similarly, Babylonian sources often lamented the destruction and subjugation brought about by Assyrian invasions, reflecting a sense of loss and resentment towards Assyrian dominance.
  • Diplomatic Correspondence: Diplomatic letters and treaties between the Assyrian kings and their contemporaries reveal a complex web of alliances, rivalries, and diplomatic negotiations. These documents, found in places like Hattusa (capital of the Hittites) and El-Amarna (Egypt), show how other powers viewed Assyria – sometimes with respect for their military and administrative capabilities and at other times with apprehension and hostility.
  • Artistic and Literary Responses: Artistic works and literature from neighbouring cultures often depicted Assyrians as formidable and sometimes oppressive conquerors. This is evident in the iconography and texts from regions like Elam and Urartu, where Assyrians were portrayed as a significant threat to their sovereignty and way of life.
  • Economic Impact: Economic records from trade centres like Kanesh (in Anatolia) illustrate the extensive trade relationships between Assyria and other regions. These records often reflect a dependency on Assyrian goods and military protection but also resentment towards Assyrian economic control and exploitation.

Religiosity
Religion played a central and profound role in Assyrian society and statecraft, permeating every aspect of life and governance. The Assyrian religion was polytheistic and shared many deities and religious practices with other Mesopotamian cultures, particularly the Babylonians.

Key Characteristics of Assyrian Religion

  • Polytheism: The Assyrians worshipped a pantheon of gods, each responsible for different aspects of the world and human life.
  • Chief Deity – Ashur: The supreme god of the Assyrians was Ashur, the divine embodiment of the city of Assur and the empire. He was associated with kingship, authority, and victory in war.
  • Other Major Deities: Other important gods included Ishtar (goddess of love and war), Anu (sky god), Enlil (god of wind and storm), and Ea (god of water and wisdom).
  • Syncretism: Assyrian religion absorbed and assimilated gods and religious practices from conquered peoples, which helped in administering a vast and diverse empire.

Religion and the Monarchy

  • Divine Kingship: Assyrian kings were considered representatives or agents of the gods, especially of Ashur. They often portrayed their military conquests as ordained by Ashur to spread his dominion.
  • Religious Duties of Kings: Assyrian kings were responsible for the maintenance and construction of temples and for performing various religious ceremonies and rituals. They often depicted themselves as pious in inscriptions, emphasizing their role as the protector and patron of the state religion.

Temple and Priesthood

  • Temples: Temples were not just religious centres but also served as economic and administrative hubs. The temple of Ashur in Assur, for example, was a significant religious and economic centre.
  • Priesthood: Priests played a crucial role in Assyrian society, overseeing religious ceremonies, interpreting omens, and advising the king on divine matters. They were influential in both the religious and political spheres.

Religious Practices

  • Rituals and Ceremonies: Religious life involved a variety of rituals, including sacrifices, festivals, and divination practices. The Assyrians believed in omens and often used divination to guide decisions, especially in matters of state and war.
  • Prayers and Hymns: Prayers and hymns were an essential part of worship, often inscribed in temples and religious texts.

Religion and Warfare

  • Divine Sanction for Conquests: Military campaigns were often initiated with the claim of divine sanction. Kings would portray their victories as evidence of their god’s superiority and favour.
  • Religious Motifs in Military Contexts: Assyrian art and inscriptions frequently depicted gods and divine symbols in military contexts, reinforcing the connection between religion and warfare.

Religious Art and Architecture

  • Religious Imagery: Assyrian religious art was rich with symbolism, depicting gods, mythical creatures, and religious rituals.
  • Architectural Grandeur: Temples and ziggurats (stepped towers) were architectural marvels and central to Assyrian religious and urban landscapes.

Impact of Religion

  • The intertwining of religion with politics, warfare, and daily life provided a unifying framework that helped maintain the empire’s cohesion.
  • The use of religion to justify conquests and the king’s rule had both stabilising and propagandistic functions.

Assyrian religiosity was characterised by a polytheistic belief system centred around the worship of Ashur and other deities, a close intertwining of religion with the monarchy and state affairs, and a rich tradition of religious practices, art, and architecture. Religion was a unifying force in the Assyrian Empire, influencing every aspect of life and governance.

Marriage in the Assyrian Empire
Marriage in the Assyrian Empire was not just a personal affair but also a social contract that involved property rights and family alliances. Here are some key points:

  • Arranged Marriages: Marriages were often arranged by families, where the compatibility of the couple was considered alongside family interests, social status, and economic considerations.
  • Dowry and Bride Price: The bride’s family usually provided a dowry, which could include land, money, or goods. In return, the groom or his family provided a bride price, which was a payment made to the bride’s family.
  • Legal Contracts: Marriages were formalised through legal contracts, which outlined the rights and obligations of both parties. These contracts often included provisions for the wife’s maintenance and rights in case of divorce or the husband’s death.
  • Polygamy: Assyrian kings and nobility might practice polygamy, having several wives and concubines. However, monogamy was more common among the general populace.
  • Role of Women: Married women in Assyria had certain legal rights, including property rights. They could own land, run businesses, and were entitled to a portion of their husband’s estate upon his death.

Burial
Burial practices in the Assyrian Empire were influenced by their religious beliefs and varied over time and across different social classes. Key aspects included:

  • Burial Methods: The common practice was inhumation, where the body was buried in the ground. Cremation was less common but did occur. Tombs varied from simple graves for common people to elaborate family tombs for the nobility.
  • Grave Goods: The Assyrians often buried the deceased with personal belongings, which could include jewellery, weapons, and items of daily use, reflecting the belief that these goods would be useful in the afterlife.
  • Royal Burials: Royal burials were elaborate affairs. Kings were often buried in palaces or specially constructed tombs. The discovery of the royal tombs at Nimrud, for instance, revealed a wealth of information about Assyrian burial customs, including the practice of burying royal women with rich adornments.
  • Religious Beliefs: The Assyrians believed in an afterlife, where the dead lived a shadowy existence in the underworld. This belief influenced their burial practices and the inclusion of grave goods to support the deceased in the afterlife.
  • Mourning Practices: Mourning rituals included offerings of food and drink to the deceased, lamentations, and ritualistic ceremonies, which were intended to ensure a peaceful transition to the afterlife.

Reforms
The Assyrians implemented several significant reforms throughout their history, which played a crucial role in maintaining and expanding their empire. Here are some key examples:

Military Reforms

  • Standing Army: Assyria is often credited with creating one of the first standing armies in history. This professional army was well-trained, well-equipped, and ready for warfare year-round, unlike the seasonal armies common in the ancient world.
  • Advanced Siege Techniques: Assyrians developed advanced siege techniques, including the use of siege towers and battering rams, which allowed them to conquer fortified cities.
  • Military Organisation: The Assyrian army was highly organised, with a clear hierarchy and divisions specialising in chariots, cavalry, infantry, and engineers.

Administrative Reforms

  • Provincial System: Under Tiglath-Pileser III, the empire transitioned from a system of vassal states to a more centrally controlled system of provinces, each governed by an appointed official. This change allowed for more direct control and efficient administration.
  • Postal System: The Assyrians developed an effective communication system with horses and mules, which was crucial for maintaining control over their vast empire.
  • Standardisation of Weights and Measures: To facilitate trade and taxation, the Assyrians standardised weights and measures across their empire.

Legal Reforms

  • Codification of Laws: Assyrian kings sought to codify laws. While less is known about the details of these laws compared to Hammurabi’s code, evidence suggests they were comprehensive and covered various aspects of daily life.
  • Legal Decrees and Fairness: Kings often issued decrees aimed at fairness and justice. For example, Ashurbanipal decreed the cancellation of debts and freed people from slavery due to debt.

Economic Reforms

  • Agricultural Development: Assyria invested heavily in agriculture, developing extensive irrigation systems, which increased agricultural productivity.
  • Trade Networks: The Assyrians expanded and controlled vast trade networks. They established trading colonies and protected trade routes, which enriched the empire.

Cultural and Religious Reforms

  • Promotion of the Akkadian Language: Assyrian rulers promoted Akkadian as a lingua franca[10] throughout the empire, which helped in administrative uniformity.
  • Religious Syncretism: Assyrian kings often incorporated the gods of conquered peoples into their own pantheon as a way to legitimise their rule and reduce dissent.

Architectural Innovations

  • Urban Planning and Construction: Significant urban development took place, with the construction of grand palaces, temples, and cities with advanced architectural techniques.
  • Library of Ashurbanipal: King Ashurbanipal established a great library in Nineveh, which was a significant cultural initiative. It aimed to preserve knowledge and contained thousands of cuneiform tablets on various subjects.

Together, these reforms not only helped in maintaining the empire but also had a lasting impact on the subsequent civilisations in the region. The Assyrian legacy in military, administration, law, and culture continued to influence the ancient Near East long after the empire’s fall.

Legacy
The legacy of the Assyrian Empire is multifaceted, influencing various aspects of history, culture, and even modern understanding of the ancient world. Despite its eventual fall, the impact of Assyrian civilisation has been enduring and significant:

Military Innovations

  • Siege Warfare and Military Tactics: The Assyrians were pioneers in the use of advanced siege engines, cavalry tactics, and systematic military campaigns. Their military innovations influenced subsequent empires in the ancient world.
  • Psychological Warfare: Assyrian use of terror tactics and psychological warfare as tools for maintaining control over conquered territories was notable. Their approach to warfare left a lasting impression on the collective memory of the Near East.

Administrative and Legal Systems

  • Provincial Administration: The Assyrian method of dividing their empire into provinces with appointed governors served as a model for efficient imperial administration, later adopted by other empires like the Persians and the Roman Empire.
  • Legal Codes: While not as well known as the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, Assyrian legal texts contributed to the development of legal thought and practice in the ancient Near East.

Art and Architecture

  • Artistic Reliefs and Sculpture: Assyrian art, particularly their stone reliefs depicting military campaigns, royal hunts, and deities, is celebrated for its detailed and dynamic portrayal of ancient life.
  • Architectural Achievements: The construction of grand palaces and temples in cities like Nineveh, Assur, and Nimrud, with their elaborate designs and garden constructions, showcased the architectural prowess of the Assyrians.

Cultural and Literary Contributions

  • Library of Ashurbanipal: The library in Nineveh, founded by King Ashurbanipal, was one of the ancient world’s greatest repositories of knowledge, preserving thousands of clay tablets covering literature, science, religion, and magic.
  • Preservation of Mesopotamian Literature: Assyrian scribes helped preserve and transmit the literary heritage of Mesopotamia, including earlier Sumerian and Akkadian works.

Language and Writing

  • Cuneiform Script: The Assyrians used and helped spread the Akkadian language written in cuneiform, which was the diplomatic and scholarly lingua franca of the time.

Influence on Religion and Mythology

  • Mythology and Religious Imagery: Assyrian mythology and religious practices had a significant impact on the religious landscape of the Near East, influencing neighbouring cultures and even impacting the Abrahamic religious traditions.

Historical and Archaeological Significance

  • Archaeological Discoveries: The excavation of Assyrian sites in the 19th and 20th centuries has been pivotal in the development of the field of archaeology and our understanding of the ancient Near East.
  • Source of Ancient History: Assyrian records provide valuable historical data about not only Assyria but also neighbouring civilisations.

Modern Cultural Impact

  • Influence on Western Art and Literature: Assyrian history and mythology have been referenced in various works of Western literature and art.
  • National and Cultural Identity: In the modern Middle East, particularly in Iraq, Assyrian heritage is an important aspect of national and cultural identity. There is also a significant Assyrian diaspora that maintains cultural traditions.

Artefacts
The Assyrian Empire left behind a rich legacy of cultural artefacts that offer insights into their society, beliefs, and achievements. These artefacts, now housed in museums around the world, offer a window into the Assyrian world, illustrating their artistic skills, religious beliefs, societal structure, and interactions with other cultures. The Assyrians’ contributions to art, architecture, and writing have had a lasting impact on the cultural heritage of the Near East and beyond. These artefacts range from grand palatial reliefs to smaller, intricate items, each telling a story about the Assyrians, as explained below:

  • Palace Reliefs and Wall Sculptures: The most famous artefacts are the palace reliefs, especially from the palaces at Nimrud, Nineveh, and Khorsabad. These reliefs depict scenes of royal lion hunts, military campaigns, and religious rituals, showcasing the power and piety of the Assyrian kings.
  • Lamassu (Winged Human-Headed Bulls): Monumental statues of lamassu, protective deities with a human head, the body of a bull or lion, and wings of an eagle, were placed at city gates and palace entrances. These imposing figures symbolised power and were believed to ward off evil. The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal: King Ashurbanipal’s library at Nineveh is one of the greatest archaeological discoveries, containing thousands of clay tablets with cuneiform script. These tablets cover a wide range of subjects, including literature, religion, magic, and science. The famous Epic of Gilgamesh[11] was found there. Many of the cuneiform tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have survived, in part, because they were made of clay. When Nineveh was sacked and burned in 612 BC, the intense heat of the fire actually baked the clay tablets, which were otherwise left to dry in the sun or were lightly fired. This inadvertent firing in the conflagration helped to preserve the tablets, making them more durable and less susceptible to crumbling over time.


Illustration of the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, depicting the interior filled with rows of clay tablets containing cuneiform script, reflecting the scholarly atmosphere and literary achievements of the Assyrian Empire.
Drawn by DALL-E, a sub-set of ChatGPT, January 2024

The Library of Ashurbanipal is one of the most significant archaeological finds in the Near East, primarily because of the wealth of information these cuneiform tablets have provided. They contain a wide range of texts – from administrative and legal documents to literature, including the famous Epic of Gilgamesh. This library has been invaluable in our understanding of Assyrian society, as well as the broader Mesopotamian culture and history.

  • The Obelisk of Shalmaneser III: This black limestone obelisk found in Nimrud features detailed reliefs and cuneiform inscriptions. It commemorates the military campaigns and tribute paid to Shalmaneser III by various kings.
  • The Balawat Gates: The bronze bands from the gates of Balawat (modern-day Imgur-Enlil) are notable for their intricate depictions of historical events and everyday life in Assyria. They provide valuable insights into Assyrian craftsmanship and architecture.
  • Ivories: Numerous ivories, often inlaid with gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, have been found in Assyrian sites. These were used as furniture decoration and demonstrated high craftsmanship and influence from neighbouring cultures.
  • Cylinder Seals: Assyrians used cylinder seals for rolling an impression onto clay tablets or other materials. These small, cylindrical objects were intricately carved and are valued for their artistic detail.
  • The Nimrud Lens: An intriguing object, possibly used as a magnifying lens or a burning glass. This artefact suggests the advanced level of Assyrian craftsmanship and scientific understanding.
  • Statues and Figurines: Various statues and figurines, often of gods, kings, or protective spirits, have been found. These were made from alabaster, basalt, or bronze.
  • Religious Artefacts: Items used in religious ceremonies, such as incense burners, libation bowls, and votive offerings, have been uncovered in Assyrian temples.

In summary, the Assyrian Empire’s legacy is evident in military strategy, administrative techniques, art, architecture, literature, and more. Its influence extends far beyond its historical period, impacting the development of civilisations that followed and leaving a lasting mark on the cultural and historical landscape of the Near East and the world.

Conclusion
In retrospect, the Assyrian Empire stands as a monumental chapter in the annals of human history. Its narrative, stretching across centuries, encapsulates the zeniths of human achievement and the pitfalls of imperial overreach. The Assyrians, with their revolutionary military tactics, formidable administrative structure, and rich cultural contributions, set a precedent for the empires that followed. Their legacy, etched in the annals of history and unearthed in the sands of Mesopotamia, continues to enlighten us about the ancient world.

The rise and fall of Assyria serve as a powerful reminder of the transient nature of power. From their early beginnings as a modest city-state to their emergence as a dominant imperial force, the Assyrians showed remarkable adaptability and strategic prowess. Yet, it was these very attributes, coupled with overextension and internal strife, that eventually led to their downfall. The empire’s collapse reminds us that even the mightiest of civilisations are not immune to the cycles of rise and decline.

Moreover, the Assyrian Empire’s influence extends beyond historical significance. In modern times, their advancements in governance, military strategy, and culture are recognised as foundational elements in the development of civilisation. The Assyrian approach to law, language, and art provided building blocks upon which much of Western and Middle Eastern cultures were later constructed.

In conclusion, the Assyrian Empire, in all its complexity, stands as a testament to human ingenuity, ambition, and the enduring quest for power and legacy. It reminds us of the interconnectedness of human societies, the impact of cultural and technological advancements, and the lessons that history perpetually offers to those who seek to understand the past to better navigate the future.

Sources and Selected Relevant Reading

Web Sources

Books
The following books range from broad overviews of Assyrian civilisation to specific studies on key figures and events. They should provide a comprehensive understanding of Assyria’s rich history and cultural heritage.

CAUTION: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Parts of this paper include information provided via artificial intelligence which, although checked by the author, is not always accurate or reliable. Neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements and you should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.

End Notes and Explanations

  1. Source: Compiled from research using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
  2. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria ↑
  3. Explanation: The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East throughout much of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, becoming the largest empire in history up to that point. Because of its geopolitical dominance and ideology based in world domination, the Neo-Assyrian Empire is by many researchers regarded to have been the first world empire in history. Source and Citations: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire ↑
  4. Further Information: The Library of Ashurbanipal was established in the 7th century BC in the ancient city of Nineveh, which is located in present-day Iraq. The last great king of the Assyrian Empire, Ashurbanipal, set up the library which was created as a collection of texts and texts of knowledge and was one of the first libraries in the world. It contained many texts, including literature, history, law, medicine, astronomy, and divination. Many texts were written in cuneiform script on clay tablets, and it’s considered one of the most important finds of cuneiform texts. The library was also used as a centre for scholarly research and education. Unfortunately, the library was destroyed by fire during the fall of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BC, but many of the clay tablets survived. The survival of the tablets is a remarkable example of how historical artefacts can survive catastrophic events and continue to provide invaluable insights into ancient civilizations. The library’s discovery in the 19th century was a pivotal moment for Assyriology and the study of the ancient Near East, as it opened up a vast source of information that was previously inaccessible. Source and further information: https://martinpollins.com/2023/04/04/the-library-of-ashurbanipal-the-worlds-oldest-organised-library/ ↑
  5. Explanation: The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portion of present-day Iran, in a region known as Media. During the 1st millennium BCE, they established a powerful kingdom that played a significant role in the downfall of the Assyrian Empire and later formed a dualistic political alliance with the Persians under Cyrus the Great, leading to the formation of the Achaemenid Empire. ↑
  6. Explanation: The Scythians were a group of ancient nomadic tribes of Iranian origin, known for their skilled horseback riding and archery. They inhabited the Eurasian steppes from about the 9th century BCE to the 1st century BCE, and their influence extended over a vast area, including parts of present-day Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and South Russia. ↑
  7. Explanation: Anatolia, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in modern-day Turkey, bordered by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Historically, it has been a crossroads of civilizations, with a rich history encompassing the Hittites, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and Ottomans, among others, making it a region of significant cultural, economic, and strategic importance. ↑
  8. Explanation: Sargon II was a ruler of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, reigning from 722 to 705 BC. Sargon II is known for consolidating and expanding the Assyrian Empire, with notable achievements including the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BC. His reign is distinguished by military campaigns, the construction of his capital city Dur-Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), and efforts to maintain the power and stability of the Assyrian Empire. ↑
  9. Explanation: The attribution of the Hanging Gardens to Nineveh rather than Babylon is a topic of historical debate, with some scholars proposing alternative theories based on various interpretations of archaeological and historical evidence. The traditional and most widely accepted view is that the Hanging Gardens were located in Babylon and were built by King Nebuchadnezzar II. However, some historians and archaeologists have suggested different locations and builders due to the lack of definitive archaeological evidence at Babylon and inconsistencies in ancient texts.

    One of the proponents of the theory that the Hanging Gardens were located in Nineveh and built by Sennacherib is Dr. Stephanie Dalley, an Assyriologist at the University of Oxford. In her book “The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: An Elusive World Wonder Traced” published in 2013, Dalley argues that the gardens were constructed in Nineveh based on her interpretation of cuneiform texts, descriptions of ancient Assyrian garden technology, and the lack of conclusive evidence in Babylon. She suggests that the gardens were part of Sennacherib’s extensive construction projects in Nineveh, which included a system of aqueducts and waterworks.

    Dalley’s hypothesis is part of a broader discussion among historians and archaeologists about the location and builder of the Hanging Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Her views represent a significant departure from the traditional belief and have sparked further research and debate in the field of ancient Near Eastern studies. However, it’s important to note that this remains a hypothesis and has not been universally accepted by scholars. The debate highlights the challenges of reconstructing ancient history with limited archaeological evidence and the complexities of interpreting historical texts. ↑

  10. Explanation: “Lingua franca” is a term used to describe a language that is adopted as a common means of communication between speakers whose native languages are different. The term originally referred to a specific mixed language used in the Mediterranean basin from the late Middle Ages to the early 19th century, which combined elements of Italian, Spanish, French, Greek, Arabic, and Turkish, among others. It was used as a trade language by merchants and sailors who came from different linguistic backgrounds. In a broader contemporary context, a lingua franca refers to any language used for communication between people who do not share a mother tongue. It becomes a bridge language, facilitating trade, diplomacy, or cultural exchange. For instance:

    English: In today’s globalised world, English serves as a lingua franca in many international contexts, including business, science, technology, and aviation.

    Swahili: In parts of Eastern Africa, Swahili functions as a lingua franca among people from different ethnic and linguistic groups.

    French: In parts of West and Central Africa, French is used as a lingua franca, connecting speakers of numerous indigenous languages.

    The use of a lingua franca is often practical, as it enables communication and cooperation among people who otherwise might not be able to understand each other. However, the dominance of a lingua franca can also have cultural and political implications, influencing language policies, education, and the status of local languages. ↑

  11. Explanation: The first book ever written is believed to be The Epic of Gilgamesh: a mythical retelling of an important political figure from history. It came from ancient Mesopotamia and is the earliest surviving notable literature and the second oldest religious text, after the Pyramid Texts. Written: c. 2100-1200 BC, it is the oldest-known fictional story that can be called a book. Source: https://martinpollins.com/2023/10/12/the-first-books-ever-written/ ↑

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Martin Pollins

Martin Pollins is a Chartered Accountant and MBA with wide experience in corporate finance and business management. He has served on the boards of several companies, including those listed on the London Stock Exchange, AIM and OFEX. He is the Chairman and Founder of OneSmartPlace and was a Council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1988 to 1996. He was managing partner of PRB Martin Pollins, based in Sussex, the first Accountancy firm to advertise on British television. He went on to create and launch the CharterGroup Partnership (the UK’s first Accountancy network) and then LawGroup UK (at the time, one of the largest networks of lawyers in the UK). In recent years, he helped to raise several £millions to fund British films such as The Da Vinci Code, Bridge of San Luis Rey, Head in the Clouds and Merchant of Venice with actors such as Charlize Theron, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, F. Murray Abraham. Kathy Bates, Gabriel Byrne, Geraldine Chaplin, Tom Hanks, Ian McKellen, Audrey Tautou, Penélope Cruz, Steven Berkoff, Lynn Collins, Jeremy Irons, Joseph Fiennes and many more. He has written several business publications (see https://onesmartplace.com/resources/)

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