Introduction^[1]

Roman amphitheatres in Britain were impressive structures used for entertainment, including gladiatorial combat, chariot races, venationes (animal slayings), executions and other public spectacles. Public events were essential to Roman identity, intertwining religious devotion, political authority, and social unity. Religious festivals honoured the gods, fostering communal bonds and reinforcing shared values. Political ceremonies, such as triumphal processions, showcased the state’s power and legitimised leaders, enhancing civic pride. Additionally, spectacles like gladiatorial games entertained the populace and served as tools for social control, maintaining public order through shared cultural experiences.

Amphitheatres were large, circular or oval open-air venues with tiered and elevated seating. They served as important social and cultural hubs for those under Roman rule. Built primarily from stone, earth, and timber, amphitheatres varied in size but were strategically located in key Roman settlements to maximise access and audience participation. The most famous amphitheatre was the iconic Colosseum^[2] in Rome.

Approximately 230 Roman amphitheatres have been discovered across the former expanse of the Roman Empire. In the United Kingdom, however, only a few examples of these architectural marvels remain, reflecting the limited Roman presence and influence in the province compared to other parts of its empire. The estimated number of Roman amphitheatres that have been discovered across the former Roman Empire is widely cited in scholarly sources. For example, this figure is mentioned in various references, including the Wikipedia page on Roman amphitheatres^[3]. Nevertheless, it is important to note that this number is an estimate, and the exact count may vary depending on new archaeological discoveries and differing criteria for what constitutes an amphitheatre. The figure of 230 provides a general sense of the widespread nature of these structures throughout the Roman Empire.

Amphitheatres are distinct from other types of ancient entertainment venues. Unlike circuses, which were long and oval-shaped and designed for chariot racing, or hippodromes, which were primarily rectangular and also built for racing, amphitheatres were typically elliptical or circular in shape.

Picture: [Tinted] Map of medieval Rome depicting the Colosseum
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Amphitheatres were constructed to host a variety of public spectacles, offering a panoramic view for all spectators. Stadia, another form of ancient venue, were more focused on athletics and were usually elongated to accommodate running tracks. Despite these distinctions, the terminology for these structures has often been used interchangeably over time, sometimes leading to confusion about their specific purposes and designs.

The number of identified former amphitheatres in the UK is relatively small^[4] and this paper identifies most of them. But first, let’s go back in time to see how they, and other public places of entertainment, operated.

How Amphitheatres Operated

Roman amphitheatres were not only architectural marvels but also centres of social and cultural life in the Roman Empire. Their operation was well-organised, reflecting the logistical and administrative sophistication of the Romans.

Here’s an exploration of how these venues functioned:

Event Organisation and Publicity
Events in amphitheatres were typically publicised well in advance. Announcements were made via inscriptions, notices, or town criers, and sometimes even on painted advertisements known as programmata on walls. These notices would include the type of event (gladiatorial combat, animal hunts, public executions, or dramatic performances), the date, and sometimes the sponsor’s name.

The timing of events was not necessarily consistent, as they often aligned with religious festivals, imperial celebrations, or the availability of prominent performers like star gladiators. However, some events might have been associated with particular calendar dates or seasonal festivities. The frequency of events varied, with large cities hosting more frequent spectacles than smaller towns.

Costs and Access to the Events
Spectators typically did not have to pay for admission, as most events were funded by wealthy sponsors or politicians seeking public favour. These sponsors, known as munerarii, covered the costs to gain popularity and political advantage. Tickets, when issued, indicated assigned seating areas, often corresponding to social status. The elite sat closer to the arena floor, while the general populace occupied the higher tiers.

Management and Logistics^[5]
The organisation of events was a complex affair, requiring a team of individuals to manage logistics. These included:

• Event sponsors, who financed the spectacles.
• Lanistae, who managed the gladiators and ensured their training and readiness.
• Beastiarii, specialists in handling the exotic animals used in hunts and combats.
• Curatores, who oversaw the maintenance and preparation of the venue.

The execution of events also required numerous auxiliary workers, including stagehands, cleaners, and attendants. Events were often announced through public notices and inscriptions. The timing and frequency of events varied, aligning with religious festivals and public holidays.

Amenities and Refreshments^[6]
Refreshments were available to spectators, often sold by vendors circulating through the stands. These could include simple food items, wine, and water. Larger amphitheatres might have had dedicated areas for purchasing refreshments.

Tickets, when issued, indicated assigned seating areas, often corresponding to social status. The elite sat closer to the arena floor, while the general populace occupied the higher tiers.

Picture: [Cropped]
Citation: “Roman Amphitheatre.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Nov. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre. Accessed 22 Dec. 2024.
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First Aid and Medical Care^[7]
For the participants, basic medical care was provided by medici (doctors) stationed on-site. Gladiators, being valuable assets, received skilled medical attention to ensure they could recover for future performances. For spectators, there is little evidence of organised first aid, but given the Roman focus on public welfare, some assistance may have been available.

Subterranean Areas
Beneath the amphitheatres, there were hypogea, complex underground networks used for various purposes:

• Holding cells for gladiators, prisoners, or animals.
• Mechanisms like lifts and trapdoors for dramatic entrances.
• Storage for weapons and props.

The hypogea were functional and utilitarian rather than luxurious. There is no evidence to suggest that showers or baths were available in these areas. Participants likely used communal baths elsewhere in the city for hygiene and relaxation after events.

Spectacle
The amphitheatre was as much about spectacle as it was about efficiency. The events were carefully choreographed for maximum drama, with elaborate sets and props enhancing the experience. The involvement of the audience, often vocally expressing approval or disdain, was an integral part of the atmosphere.

The Roman amphitheatre operated as a well-oiled machine, reflecting the Empire’s ability to entertain, control, and awe its populace. These venues were not just arenas for blood sport; they were stages for showcasing Roman grandeur, organisation, and cultural priorities. In short, an opportunity to boast.

Organisation of Seating

The organisation of seating in Roman arenas and theatres evolved significantly over time, reflecting the changing social and political dynamics of the Roman Empire. The following points elaborate on the transition, the role of women, and the unique cultural status of chariot racing:

Transition to Segregated Seating
Initially, seating in Roman arenas and theatres was relatively informal, with individuals of different genders and social classes often sitting near one another. This arrangement reflected the more egalitarian cultural practices of the Roman Republic’s earlier periods, where public spaces were less rigidly stratified.

However, as Rome transitioned into the imperial era, Augustus and subsequent emperors sought to enforce greater social order and hierarchy. Augustus, in particular, formalised seating arrangements in public venues, codifying them according to rank, gender, and social class. This was part of a broader effort to reinforce traditional Roman values and hierarchical distinctions. For instance:

• Senators and equestrians were given prime seating closest to the action, reflecting their elite status.
• Ordinary citizens (plebeians) were seated further back, with slaves and other low-ranking individuals relegated to the highest tiers or excluded entirely.

These reforms not only reflected but actively reinforced the rigid stratification of Roman society under imperial rule.

Exclusion and Placement of Women
Women experienced varied levels of exclusion from public spectacles depending on the type of event. For gladiatorial games, which were considered particularly violent and morally corrupting, Roman women were sometimes prohibited from attending altogether. When permitted, they were often relegated to the uppermost tiers of the amphitheatre, far removed from the arena floor. This arrangement was intended to reflect societal norms that emphasised women’s modesty and separation from activities deemed inappropriate for their moral sensibilities.

This segregation also applied to other types of spectacles, such as animal hunts and public executions. However, the exact degree of exclusion and separation varied by time period and region within the Empire.

Chariot Racing and Social Mixing
Chariot racing, uniquely among Roman spectacles, allowed for a much more socially inclusive atmosphere. Men and women of all classes could sit together in the circus, such as the Circus Maximus^[8] in Rome. This phenomenon may be attributed to several factors:

• Chariot racing had deep cultural roots and mass appeal, making it a unifying form of entertainment that transcended class barriers.
• The enormous scale of venues like the Circus Maximus, which could accommodate hundreds of thousands of spectators, made strict seating enforcement impractical.
• The nature of the races, which lacked the overtly violent and morally questionable elements of gladiatorial combat, made them more acceptable for mixed-gender and cross-class audiences.

This inclusivity gave chariot racing a unique place in Roman society as an entertainment form that bridged social divides, albeit temporarily and within the specific context of the spectacle.

Broader Implications
The stratification of seating arrangements in Roman arenas was not merely a reflection of social norms but an active tool of imperial policy. Emperors reinforced the societal hierarchy by controlling how people experienced public spectacles, making visible distinctions of power and privilege. At the same time, exceptions like chariot racing reveal the enduring complexities and contradictions of Roman social life, where rigid stratification coexisted with moments of shared cultural experience.

Marketing and Advertising Gladiatorial Games in Ancient Rome

The organisation of gladiatorial games extended far beyond the arena, requiring a sophisticated system of marketing and advertising to draw in the crowds and ensure the success of these grand spectacles. The Romans, adept at communication and public engagement, employed various methods to promote these events.

The following information describes what happened in Rome – it is reasonable to expect that in whole or in part, similar arrangements applied in Roman Britain.

Advertising Gladiatorial Shows
Once the gladiators and venatores (beast hunters) were hired, it was crucial to publicise the event. Public notices, known as edicta munerum, were painted or inscribed on walls, typically in prominent areas such as marketplaces, baths, or other high-traffic locations. These notices served a dual purpose: to inform the public about the upcoming munera (gladiatorial games) and to glorify the event’s sponsor, known as the editor. The sponsor, often a wealthy politician or public figure, used the games to gain prestige and win public favour.

Information in Advertisements
These advertisements conveyed a wealth of information, much of which reflected what was deemed to be important to attract attendees:

• Name of the Sponsor: The prominence of the editor’s name was key, as their reputation often determined the perceived quality of the games.
• Ludus and Gladiators’ Origins: The advertisements highlighted the training school (ludus) from which the gladiators came, as certain schools were renowned for producing skilled fighters.
• Scale of the Event: The number of gladiators, animals, and fights was often included to emphasise the grandeur of the occasion.
• Amenities and Comfort: Notices frequently mentioned practical details such as providing awnings (vela) to shield spectators from the hot Italian sun, greatly enhancing the entertainment experience.

Gladiatorial Programs
Programs were an integral part of the spectacle, offering attendees additional details about the matches. These included:

• Win-Loss Records: Though no examples survive, ancient handbooks or programs likely detailed the gladiators’ past victories and defeats, akin to modern sports statistics.
• Schedules and Match-Ups: Programs would inform spectators of the sequence of events, including which gladiators or animal hunts would appear at specific times^[9].

Evidence from Pompeii
Much of our knowledge about gladiatorial advertising comes from the city of Pompeii, where numerous handwritten notices were preserved under the volcanic ash of Mount Vesuvius’s eruption in 79 AD. These posters, painted or inked on walls, provide insights into the marketing strategies of the time. For example, some posters advertised a multi-day event featuring a certain number of pairs of gladiators, promising thrilling combat and public executions as part of the entertainment.

Expanding the Marketing Reach
Beyond written advertisements, the Romans used other means to stimulate excitement and anticipation. Heralds likely walked through the streets, shouting details about the games. Performances or demonstrations, such as mock combats or processions, might also have been staged to draw attention and generate anticipation. Gladiatorial contests were not merely events; they were public spectacles woven into the social and political fabric of Roman life.

The marketing of gladiatorial games reflects the Romans’ ingenuity in creating an immersive and highly anticipated experience. By ensuring that the public knew not only what to expect but also who to thank for the entertainment, these advertisements maximised attendance and reinforced the social and political dynamics of the time.

Female Gladiators

Female gladiators, known in Latin as gladiatrices (singular: gladiatrix), were rare but fascinating figures in the Roman arena. Their existence challenges the traditional view of gladiatorial games as an entirely male-dominated domain and highlights the Roman appetite for novelty and spectacle.

Origins and Historical Context
Female gladiators were a novelty act rather than a regular feature of the games. Their appearances in the arena were typically used to captivate audiences with the unusual and exotic. Female gladiators first appear in historical records during the late Roman Republic and early Empire – a time when gladiatorial games were becoming increasingly elaborate.

The practice was likely inspired by earlier traditions, such as women participating in religious rituals or athletic competitions in Greek society. However, in Rome, their involvement in the games was less about athleticism or religious devotion and more about entertainment and spectacle.

Evidence of Female Gladiators
The evidence for female gladiators is relatively sparse, but it comes from a combination of literary references, inscriptions, and archaeological finds:

• Literary Sources: Ancient writers like Juvenal and Cassius Dio mention female gladiators, often disparagingly, as examples of decadence or moral decline. For instance, Cassius Dio records that Emperor Domitian staged night-time games featuring women fighting dwarves for entertainment.
• Inscriptions: A notable inscription from Halicarnassus in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) refers to two female gladiators, Amazon and Achillia^[10], who were celebrated for their bravery in the arena. These names were likely stage names, evoking the mythical warrior women of Greek lore.
• Archaeological Finds: A bronze statuette discovered in Germany depicts a female gladiator holding a curved blade and raising her arm in a gesture of victory. This statuette is one of the few physical pieces of evidence for the existence of female gladiators.

Role in the Arena
Female gladiators fought in the same arenas as their male counterparts but often in specially arranged matches designed to emphasise their rarity. These could include:

• Fighting other women.
• Facing animals (though this was more commonly the domain of venatores, or animal hunters).
• Fighting male gladiators on rare occasions.

While the fights were real, the emphasis was often on the spectacle of women participating in what was traditionally a male domain, rather than the martial skill or brutality that characterised typical gladiatorial combat.

Restrictions and Decline
As the novelty of female gladiators waned, restrictions on their participation were introduced. Emperor Septimius Severus officially banned women from fighting in the arena around 200 AD, citing concerns about the erosion of traditional Roman values. This ban marked the end of female gladiators as a public spectacle.

Social Status and Public Perception
Most female gladiators came from lower social classes, including slaves, prisoners of war, and condemned criminals. However, some free women participated voluntarily, driven by the lure of fame, money, or a desire to defy societal norms.

Roman society’s reaction to female gladiators was mixed. While their presence in the arena drew crowds, they were often seen as scandalous or subversive. Female participation in such violent and public activities clashed with traditional Roman ideals of womanhood, which emphasised modesty and domesticity.

Legacy
Despite their rarity, female gladiators have captured the imagination of modern audiences, representing an intriguing aspect of Roman culture. They serve as a reminder of the diversity and complexity of the gladiatorial games, as well as the ways in which Romans blended entertainment with societal norms and values. While their role in history was brief, their impact symbolises defiance and spectacle in the ancient world.

Picture: Pollice Verso (“With a Turned Thumb”), an 1872 painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme
Citation: Gladiator. (2024, December 9). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator
Attribution: Jean-Léon Gérôme, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

How Were Gladiators Trained?

Training gladiators was a rigorous and highly disciplined process that took place in specialised schools called ludi gladiatorii (singular: ludus). These schools were managed by a lanista, a trainer and a manager responsible for the preparation and oversight of the gladiators. The training regime was designed to transform individuals—whether slaves, prisoners of war, criminals, or volunteers—into skilled fighters capable of putting on thrilling performances in the arena.

The Structure of a Gladiatorial School
A ludus was both a training facility and a living space for the gladiators. It was typically enclosed by high walls for security and included:

• Barracks: Living quarters for the gladiators.
• Training Ground: An open area or arena for practising combat techniques.
• Armoury: Storage for weapons and armour.
• Medical Facilities: To treat injuries sustained during training or combat.
• Dining Area: Where gladiators were provided with a diet to maintain strength and stamina.

The most famous of these schools was the Ludus Magnus in Rome, which housed hundreds of gladiators. It was located near the Colosseum.

Daily Training Regimen
Gladiatorial training was intense and highly regimented, focusing on physical fitness, combat skills, and discipline. A typical day included:

• Physical Conditioning: Exercises to build strength, endurance, and agility. This included running, weightlifting, and other drills.
• Weapons Training: Gladiators trained with wooden swords and shields to minimise injury while practising. Each fighter was trained in the use of specific weapons according to their gladiatorial type (e.g., retiarius, murmillo).
• Combat Techniques: Emphasis was placed on precise movements, defensive tactics, and how to deliver an entertaining fight. Gladiators learned how to create dramatic but controlled performances to please the audience.
• Sparring Matches: Practising one-on-one combat under the watchful eye of the lanista or an assistant trainer.
• Specialised Training: Each gladiator was trained for their specific role in the arena, which was determined by their body type, skills, and sometimes their background.

Types of Gladiators and Training
Gladiators were divided into distinct types based on their weapons, armour, and fighting styles. The training was tailored to these categories:

• Murmillo: Armed with a short sword (gladius) and a large rectangular shield (scutum), trained for heavy, methodical combat.
• Retiarius: Equipped with a net and trident, trained for agility and quick strikes.
• Thraex: Wielded a curved sword (sica) and used a small shield, trained for close combat.
• Secutor: Heavily armoured, trained to counter the retiarius with endurance and heavy strikes.

Discipline and Control
Discipline was strict in the ludus. Gladiators were under constant supervision, and any act of disobedience could result in severe punishment. This was necessary to maintain order and ensure that the gladiators performed well in the arena.

Medical Care
Given the value of gladiators as investments, schools employed skilled physicians to treat injuries and ensure fighters remained in peak condition. Medical care was advanced for the time, as the survival and recovery of gladiators were essential to the school’s profitability.

Voluntary Gladiators
While many gladiators were slaves or condemned criminals, some free men—and even women—joined the ludi voluntarily. These individuals, known as auctorati, sought fame, financial rewards, or a way to escape poverty. They underwent the same rigorous training as enslaved gladiators.

Psychological Preparation
Training also included mental conditioning. Gladiators were taught to confront death with courage and composure, as the spectacle of their bravery was a key element of their appeal to the audience.

Graduation to the Arena
Once a gladiator was deemed ready, they would participate in smaller matches, known as munera, before moving on to larger arenas such as the Colosseum. These bouts were both a test of their skills and a means of building their reputation.

Through their training, gladiators became highly skilled performers and fighters, embodying the Roman ideals of strength, endurance, and spectacle. Their preparation was as much about creating an engaging performance as it was about combat, ensuring their place in the grand tradition of Roman entertainment.

Chariot Racing in the Roman World

Chariot racing was one of the most popular and enduring forms of entertainment in the Roman Empire. Held in massive venues like the Circus Maximus in Rome, these thrilling events combined speed, skill, and danger, captivating audiences across the Empire. The races were as much a display of Roman engineering and organisational prowess as they were of athletic ability and daring.

Citation: Circus Maximus. (2024, November 11). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circus_Maximus
Model of Rome in the 4^th century AD, by Paul Bigot. The Circus lies between the Aventine (left) and Palatine (right); the oval structure to the far right is the Colosseum.
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The Structure of Races
Chariot racing involved teams, or factiones, distinguished by colours: Red, Blue, Green, and White were the most common. Each faction employed drivers, trainers, and horses. Drivers competed in light, two-wheeled chariots pulled by teams of two, four (quadriga), or sometimes more horses.

Races typically consisted of seven laps around the spina, a central barrier adorned with statues, monuments, and lap markers. The lap markers often included decorative dolphins or eggs, which were removed or turned to track progress.

The Venue
The Circus Maximus was the most famous chariot racing venue, which could accommodate up to 250,000 spectators. It featured a long, oval track and rows of tiered seating, with the wealthiest and most influential citizens seated closest to the action.

The Thrill of the Race
The races were intense and often violent. Drivers faced the dual challenge of controlling their horses while navigating tight turns and avoiding collisions. Crashes, known as naufragia, were common and highly dramatic, adding to the excitement for the crowd. Winning required exceptional skill and courage, as well as well-trained horses.

Social and Political Importance
Chariot racing was more than just a sport; it was a political and social event. Wealthy sponsors funded races to gain public favour, and the factions inspired intense loyalty among their supporters, akin to modern sports teams. Emperors often used races to curry favour with the populace, addressing the crowd directly or sponsoring lavish events to celebrate victories or festivals.

Chariot Racing in Britain

While Britain was part of the Roman Empire, evidence for large-scale chariot racing comparable to events in Rome is scant. Unlike amphitheatres, which were relatively common in Roman Britain, there is little archaeological or textual evidence to suggest the widespread construction of circuses or the hosting of major chariot racing events.

Possible Evidence of Chariot Racing

• Colchester (Camulodunum): There is a theory that the remains of a large Roman circus found in Colchester might have been used for chariot racing. This site is unique in Britain and suggests that some form of racing or similar spectacles could have occurred there.
• Smaller Venues and Local Spectacles: While dedicated circuses were rare, smaller arenas or improvised spaces may have been used for local races or demonstrations, though these would not have matched the scale or grandeur of Roman circuses elsewhere in the Empire.

Roman Influence on British Traditions
Chariots were already a part of British culture before the Roman invasion, as evidenced by their use in Celtic warfare. The Romans may have adapted local traditions or demonstrated their own chariot racing during military or celebratory displays.

Chariot racing was a cornerstone of Roman entertainment, epitomising the Empire’s love for spectacle and competition. While its presence in Britain appears to have been limited, the discovery of the circus at Colchester hints at the possibility of smaller-scale events. However, Britain never became a major centre for chariot racing, likely due to its peripheral status in the Empire and its cooler, wetter climate, which may have made maintaining large tracks less practical.

Spectator Behaviour

The riot at Pompeii in 59 AD stands out as one of the few recorded disturbances at gladiatorial shows in the Roman world. It was a significant event that drew the attention of the Emperor Nero and led to severe consequences for Pompeii, including a temporary ban on hosting gladiatorial games.

The Riot at Pompeii: What Happened?
According to the Roman historian Tacitus (Annals, Book XIV), the riot occurred during a gladiatorial show in Pompeii’s amphitheatre. The disturbance was not primarily about the gladiators or their performances but rather stemmed from a longstanding rivalry between the citizens of Pompeii and those of Nuceria, a nearby town.

The tension escalated during the games when verbal insults were exchanged between the supporters of the two towns. The situation quickly devolved into a violent brawl, with stones and weapons being used. The riot resulted in numerous injuries and deaths, especially among the Nucerians, who suffered heavy casualties.

Background to the Rivalry
Pompeii and Nuceria had a history of political and economic rivalry. As Roman colonies, both towns vied for prominence in the region of Campania. Public spectacles like gladiatorial games often became arenas for displaying civic pride and power. The amphitheatre at Pompeii was a particularly grand structure, and hosting games there would have been seen as a symbol of the town’s wealth and status.

The rivalry likely had deeper roots in territorial disputes and competition for resources. The games provided a convenient, if volatile, stage for these tensions to boil over.

Consequences of the Riot
The incident was serious enough to be reported to Rome. Nero’s government responded decisively:

• The Pompeians were banned from hosting gladiatorial games for ten years, a severe punishment in a society where such events were a key aspect of civic identity and public entertainment.
• The organiser of the games, Livineius Regulus, was exiled. As the sponsor of the event, he bore responsibility for ensuring order, and his failure to do so led to his harsh penalty.
• Additional punishments were likely meted out to participants, though details are not recorded.

Tacitus remarks that the response served as a warning to other towns about the importance of maintaining order during public spectacles.

Law and Order at Gladiatorial Games
Despite the scale and intensity of Roman spectacles, disturbances at gladiatorial games were rare. This was due in large part to the Roman authorities’ emphasis on maintaining law and order at such events. Measures included:

• Security Presence: Amphitheatres were often guarded by local militia or Roman soldiers, who were stationed to prevent and respond to disturbances. Their visible presence acted as a deterrent.
• Social Hierarchies and Seating Arrangements: The strict organisation of seating according to social rank helped minimise friction between different groups. Each class had its designated space, reducing the likelihood of confrontations.
• Penalties for Misconduct: Punishments for disrupting public order were severe, ranging from fines to exile or even execution. The state viewed riots as threats to imperial stability and treated them accordingly.
• Civic Responsibility of Sponsors: The sponsor of the games, or editor, was personally responsible for ensuring the event’s smooth operation. This included hiring security, managing the crowd, and addressing potential sources of conflict.
• Crowd Control Mechanisms: Amphitheatres were designed with crowd management in mind, featuring multiple exits (vomitoria) to allow for orderly dispersal, reducing the chances of large-scale chaos.

Commentary on the Pompeii Incident
The riot at Pompeii is an anomaly in the generally orderly history of Roman public spectacles. It highlights the potential for civic rivalries to erupt into violence, even in settings designed for entertainment. The severity of the response from Nero’s administration underscores the Roman state’s importance on maintaining peace and order at public events.

This incident also serves as a reminder of the broader social dynamics at play in Roman cities, where local rivalries, class tensions, and political ambitions could converge in dramatic and sometimes violent ways. Despite the riot, the overall law enforcement system at Roman spectacles proved remarkably effective in maintaining control over large and often rowdy crowds.

Riots and Disturbances

The theatre and chariot racing in ancient Rome were far more prone to riots and disturbances compared to gladiatorial games. The reasons for this lay in the social dynamics and the structures of these forms of entertainment. They attracted fervent loyalty, intense rivalries, and even political manipulation, creating fertile ground for unrest.

Chariot racing in the Circus Maximus and other venues was characterised by the rivalry between the factiones—professional teams distinguished by their colours: Red, Blue, Green, and White. These factions were more than just sports teams; they represented intense social, political, and sometimes even religious affiliations.

Causes of Riots in Chariot Racing

• Factional Loyalty: Supporters of the factions often identified deeply with their teams, similar to modern sports fandom but with even greater intensity. These allegiances sometimes spilt over into violence, especially when perceived injustices, such as biased officiating or foul play, occurred.
• Political Manipulation: Emperors and politicians sometimes exploited the factions to consolidate power or distract the populace. This involvement could escalate tensions, especially if one faction appeared favoured by the authorities.
• Social Divisions: The factions often drew supporters from distinct social and economic groups. For instance, the Greens were associated with the lower classes and merchants, while the Blues had connections to the elite. These differences added a layer of class conflict to the sporting rivalries.
• Massive Crowds: With venues like the Circus Maximus accommodating up to 250,000 spectators, controlling such large crowds was a logistical challenge. Any incident could quickly escalate into a riot.

Famous Incidents
One of the most infamous examples of chariot-related unrest was the Nika Riots in Constantinople in 532 AD. Supporters of the Blues and Greens joined forces against Emperor Justinian I after a dispute over punishment for faction members. The riots resulted in widespread destruction and the deaths of tens of thousands, showcasing the immense power and danger of factionalism.

Riots in the Theatre: The Power of Star Performers

Theatre in ancient Rome, particularly mime and pantomime performances, also provoked significant unrest, driven by the immense popularity of performers and the passionate devotion of their fans.

Star Power and Factionalism

• Celebrity Performers: Mime and pantomime stars commanded huge followings, akin to modern-day celebrities. Their performances could sway public opinion and even influence political decisions, making them figures of immense cultural and social power.
• Factional Rivalries: Similar to the chariot factions, theatre factions emerged around popular performers or schools of performance. Supporters would fiercely defend their favourites, sometimes clashing with rival groups in the audience or even in the streets.
• Social and Political Undercurrents: Theatre riots often reflected broader societal tensions. For instance, the preferences of different classes for particular performers or genres could spark disputes. Additionally, performers were sometimes aligned with political figures, further polarising audiences.

Dynamics of Theatre Riots

• Theatres, unlike circuses, were smaller venues, but their more intimate settings allowed tensions to boil over quickly.
• Performers occasionally used their influence to stoke the passions of their supporters, either for personal gain or as a means of expressing dissatisfaction with authorities.
• Fights and disturbances could erupt over trivial matters, such as casting decisions or the content of a play, but often escalated due to deeper social grievances.

Law Enforcement and Order
Authorities faced significant challenges in maintaining order in both the circus and theatre. Their responses included:

• Deploying soldiers or local militia to prevent or quell riots.
• Banning certain performers or temporarily closing venues to avoid unrest.
• Imposing fines or punishments on organisers or factions deemed responsible for disturbances.

The riot-prone nature of the circus and theatre highlights the complex relationship between entertainment, social identity, and politics in ancient Rome. While these spectacles provided a release for societal tensions, they also acted as flashpoints for conflict. The factions, whether supporting charioteers or performers, served as proxies for broader issues such as class divisions, political rivalries, and regional loyalties.

In this context, the stability of the factions in the circus and the immense star power of theatre performers were double-edged swords. They fostered passionate engagement and loyalty but also created conditions ripe for unrest. These dynamics reveal the centrality of public spectacles in Roman society—not just as entertainment but as arenas where societal conflicts and alliances were played out in dramatic and sometimes violent fashion.

Religious and Cultural Significance of Public Events

Public spectacles in Ancient Rome were not merely about entertainment; they were deeply intertwined with religious and cultural practices. Many events, such as gladiatorial games (munera), were originally held as part of funerary rites to honour the deceased. Over time, these rituals evolved into grand public spectacles, often dedicated to the gods or tied to significant festivals, such as the Saturnalia or Ludi Romani.

Amphitheatres and circuses became stages where Romans celebrated their religious devotion while reinforcing community identity. These events also served as expressions of collective gratitude, such as those held to commemorate military victories or imperial achievements. In Roman Britain, public events played a critical role in promoting Roman religious practices, blending local traditions with Roman cult worship to foster cultural integration. Temples adjacent to theatres and amphitheatres frequently hosted rituals, reinforcing the connection between religion and entertainment.

Economic Impact of Public Events

The economic ramifications of Roman public spectacles were immense. Sponsors (munerarii), often wealthy elites or politicians, bore the costs of organising events, including training gladiators, acquiring animals, and maintaining venues.

The spectacles generated significant employment, providing work for gladiators, trainers, armourers, animal handlers, musicians, and vendors. Beyond the immediate workforce, events stimulated local economies by drawing large crowds who spent money on food, accommodation, and goods from merchants.

In Roman Britain, where towns like Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St Albans) hosted amphitheatres and theatres, the influx of visitors contributed to the prosperity of urban centres. The construction and maintenance of venues, often requiring extensive stonework and engineering expertise, created additional long-term economic stimuli. These public spectacles became economic engines that tied local populations more closely to the imperial system.

The Role of Sponsors and Politics in Public Events

Public spectacles were powerful tools for political and social advancement in both Rome and its provinces. Wealthy citizens and emperors sponsored events to gain public favour and project their generosity and influence.

Sponsorship of gladiatorial games or theatrical performances allowed individuals to showcase their loyalty to the emperor and their commitment to civic welfare. For instance, the provision of free games and lavish entertainments helped sponsors cultivate loyalty and political support among the populace. Emperors, including Augustus and Nero, frequently used such events to strengthen their image, with Augustus emphasising moderation and piety in his sponsorships, while Nero indulged in extravagant displays to bolster his popularity.

In Roman Britain, these practices extended to local leaders, who used events to solidify Roman cultural values and demonstrate allegiance to the Empire. The widespread public engagement with these spectacles helped unify diverse populations under Roman rule.

Comparison of Spectacles in Rome and Britain

Public spectacles in Roman Britain were smaller in scale compared to those in Rome but retained many of the same features. The Colosseum in Rome, with its grandeur and capacity for 50,000 spectators, contrasted with more modest venues like the amphitheatres at Chester and Cirencester, which served smaller populations.

Roman amphitheatres in Britain typically seated between 2,000 and 8,000 spectators, reflecting the province’s smaller urban centres. Additionally, events in Britain often adapted to local tastes, reflecting a mix of Roman traditions and indigenous elements. Gladiatorial games, animal hunts, and executions were common, but evidence suggests local flora and fauna might have substituted for the exotic animals used in Rome.

While chariot racing was central in Rome, evidence of it in Britain is minimal, with only Colchester providing a possible example of a circus. The provincial adaptations illustrate how Roman public spectacles could be tailored to suit the cultural and logistical realities of different regions.

Animals in Public Spectacles

Exotic animals were prominent in Roman spectacles, symbolising the Empire’s vast reach and power. Venationes, or staged hunts, featured lions, bears, elephants, leopards, and crocodiles imported from Africa, Asia, and beyond. These events showcased Rome’s ability to conquer and control distant lands.

Picture: Mérida amphitheatre, Spain; mural of beast hunt, showing a venator (or bestiarius) and lioness
Citation: Gladiator. (2024, December 9). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator
Attribution: National Museum of Roman Art, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The logistics of transporting and managing these animals were complex, involving specialised handlers and purpose-built cages. While evidence of exotic animals is sparse in Britain, native species like wolves, wild boars, and deer may have been used in local spectacles. Archaeological finds suggest the presence of animal enclosures near some amphitheatres, indicating their role in provincial games. These hunts, whether featuring local or exotic species, provided a thrilling experience for audiences and reinforced the power and spectacle of the Roman Empire.

Audience Experience and Popular Entertainment

A day at a Roman public spectacle was a vibrant and immersive experience. Spectators arrived early to secure seats, as social hierarchies dictated seating arrangements. The elite occupied the lower tiers in shade, while the poor and women were relegated to the upper levels.

Vendors roamed the stands, selling food, drinks, and souvenirs. Items like roasted nuts, fresh bread, and mulled wine were common offerings. The atmosphere was lively, with music, announcements, and pre-event displays creating anticipation.

The games themselves were structured to maintain interest, beginning with lighter activities, such as animal displays, followed by the main gladiatorial events. In Britain, amphitheatres like Caerleon likely provided a similar experience, though on a smaller scale, reflecting local adaptations. Spectators’ engagement with the events created a sense of community and shared identity, transcending social divisions.

Decline and Legacy of Public Spectacles

The decline of Roman public spectacles in Britain coincided with the Empire’s withdrawal in the 5^th century AD. Amphitheatres fell into disuse, and their stone materials were often repurposed for other constructions. However, the legacy of these events persisted, influencing medieval tournaments and fairs. Gladiatorial combat found echoes in knightly jousts, while the organisation of public gatherings bore similarities to Roman practices.

The remnants of venues like Chester’s Amphitheatre and the theatre at St Albans are enduring reminders of this once-vital aspect of Roman culture. In some cases, the ruins of these structures became integrated into local folklore, preserving their cultural memory.

The Role of Public Events in Romanisation

Public events were instrumental in the Romanisation of Britain, serving as tools to integrate local populations into Roman culture. By introducing spectacles like gladiatorial games and theatrical performances, the Romans showcased their customs, values, and technological achievements.

Amphitheatres and theatres became symbols of Roman authority and cultural dominance, fostering a sense of shared identity among diverse communities. These events provided an opportunity for local elites to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome by participating in or sponsoring spectacles. The adoption of Roman entertainment also facilitated the blending of indigenous and Roman traditions, creating a hybrid cultural identity in the provinces.

Technological Innovations in Venues

Roman engineering was pivotal in the success of public venues. Innovations such as retractable awnings (velarium) provided shade for spectators, while sophisticated drainage systems ensured arenas remained usable in wet conditions.

Acoustic designs enhanced the theatre experience, enabling performers to be heard by large audiences. Venues like the Colosseum included complex underground systems (hypogeum) for staging dramatic entrances of gladiators and animals.

In Britain, these innovations were evident in venues like the theatre at St Albans and the amphitheatre at Caerleon, demonstrating the Empire’s ability to adapt advanced techniques to provincial settings. Such advancements reflected Roman ingenuity and contributed to the enduring appeal of their architectural legacy.

Public Health and Sanitation at Events

The Romans took measures to ensure sanitation and public health during spectacles. Amphitheatres and circuses featured waste management systems, including drains and designated refuse areas, to accommodate large crowds.

Water was often supplied through aqueducts and fountains, providing drinking water and cleaning facilities. Public latrines were strategically located near venues, and attendants maintained cleanliness.

These measures underscored the Roman commitment to maintaining order and public welfare, even during massive gatherings. In provincial towns like Verulamium, these practices were adapted to suit local conditions, showcasing the Romans’ pragmatic approach to urban planning.

Ethical Views on Entertainment in Ancient Rome

Roman attitudes toward public spectacles were complex. While most citizens revelled in the excitement of gladiatorial games and chariot races, some philosophers and elites criticised their brutality and excess:

• Seneca, for instance, lamented the moral degradation caused by the games, viewing them as a reflection of societal decline.
• Cicero expressed concerns about the desensitising effects of violence on spectators.

These critiques highlight a tension between the cultural significance of spectacles and their ethical implications. Despite such criticisms, the popularity of these events endured, suggesting they fulfilled a deep societal need for entertainment, community, and expressions of power.

Rome: The Colosseum – the Quintessential Amphitheatre

The Colosseum, or Flavian Amphitheatre, is the most famous and iconic Roman amphitheatre. Located in the heart of ancient Rome, it was specifically designed as an amphitheatre and represents the pinnacle of Roman engineering and architectural skill. Its key features are:

Shape and Structure:

• The Colosseum is elliptical, a hallmark of Roman amphitheatres, distinguishing it from other venues like circuses (long and oval) or theatres (semicircular).
• It was built to accommodate large-scale public spectacles, such as gladiatorial contests (munera), animal hunts (venationes), executions, and even mock naval battles in its early years.

Capacity:

• It could hold between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators, depending on seating configurations, making it the largest amphitheatre ever built.

Subterranean Areas:

• Beneath the arena was the hypogeum, an intricate underground system of tunnels, cages, and lifts used to store animals, gladiators, and props for the spectacles.

Seating Arrangements:

• Its seating reflected Roman social hierarchy, with the emperor and elite occupying the best seats close to the arena, while the lower classes and women were seated farther away in the upper tiers.

Versatility:

• Like other Roman amphitheatres, it was multifunctional. Besides gladiatorial games and animal hunts, it hosted public executions and dramatic reenactments of famous battles or myths.

Engineering Marvel:

• The Colosseum featured an advanced system of trapdoors and pulleys for dramatic entrances, a retractable awning (velarium) to shade spectators, and sophisticated drainage systems.

The Colosseum embodies all the characteristics of a Roman amphitheatre, scaled to monumental proportions. It was a centrepiece of Roman public life and remains a symbol of Roman culture and ingenuity. Its name, “Colosseum,” likely derives from a nearby colossal statue of Nero, but its original name, Amphitheatrum Flavium, explicitly identifies it as an amphitheatre built by the Flavian emperors (Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian).

Before Amphitheatres

Before the advent of permanent amphitheatres, the Romans and earlier civilisations used simpler or more temporary spaces for public spectacles and entertainment. These early venues evolved over time, leading to the construction of the more sophisticated and enduring amphitheatres. Here’s an overview of what preceded them:

Natural Spaces and Temporary Structures

• Natural Arenas: The earliest forms of public entertainment likely took place in natural spaces, such as flat plains, hillsides, or valleys, where audiences could gather and watch events. These venues offered no permanent seating or structural enhancements.
• Temporary Wooden Stages and Bleachers: In the days of the early Roman Republic, wooden platforms and seating were erected for specific events, such as gladiatorial games (munera) or animal hunts (venationes). These were dismantled after the events concluded.

Greek Influence: Theatres and Stadia

• Greek Theatres: The Romans borrowed heavily from the Greek tradition of open-air theatres, which were semicircular and primarily used for dramatic performances. These theatres influenced early Roman designs, but they were unsuitable for the dynamic and often violent spectacles that later became central to Roman culture.
• Stadia and Hippodromes: In the Greek world, elongated structures like stadia (for athletic competitions) and hippodromes (for chariot racing) existed. While they were designed for specific types of events, their layouts did not accommodate the multifunctional spectacles the Romans preferred.

Forum Venues in the Roman Republic

• In the early Roman Republic, public events such as gladiatorial contests and executions were held in open areas like the Forum Romanum. These spaces lacked purpose-built structures but provided ample room for crowds to gather.
• The use of forums for public spectacles reflects the community-focused nature of Roman civic life before specialised purpose-built venues emerged.

Etruscan Influence

• The Etruscans, who predated the Romans in central Italy, had a strong tradition of public spectacles tied to religious and funerary practices. They introduced early forms of gladiatorial combat as part of funeral rites (munera), which likely influenced the Roman adoption of these practices.

The Development of the Oval Arena

• By the time of the late Republic, the Romans began experimenting with oval or circular spaces for games and combat, reflecting the need for better spectator visibility and dynamic movement within the performance area. This evolution culminated in the construction of permanent amphitheatres.

The Transition to Amphitheatres

The word amphitheatre originates from the Ancient Greek word amphitheatron, combining amphi (meaning “on both sides” or “around”) and theatron (meaning “place for viewing). This term was adopted into Latin as “amphitheatrum” and later entered Middle English as amphitheatre. Thus, it describes a circular or oval open-air venue with rising tiers of seats arranged around a central performance area or stage, used for entertainment performances such as concerts, plays, sports, or public ceremonies. The first known permanent amphitheatre, built in Pompeii around 70 BC, marked a turning point. Its design—with tiered seating, an elliptical arena, and stone construction—was a clear departure from the temporary and improvised venues of earlier times. From this point, amphitheatres became a hallmark of Roman urban planning, spreading across the empire.

Key Reasons for the Shift:

• Specialisation: Amphitheatres were specifically designed for violent and spectacular events like gladiatorial combat, executions, and hunts.
• Durability: Unlike temporary structures, amphitheatres were built to last, reflecting the Roman preference for monumental architecture.
• Visibility: The oval design ensured every spectator had a clear view of the action, enhancing the communal experience.

Picture: Hypogeum of the Amphitheatre of El Jem, an archaeological site in the city of El Djem, Tunisia. At both sides of this tunnel are located the cells where the beasts for the games were kept.
Attribution: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Before the construction of amphitheatres, public spectacles in Rome and earlier cultures were held in natural spaces, temporary wooden structures, forums, and venues influenced by Greek and Etruscan traditions. The development of amphitheatres represented a significant innovation in creating dedicated spaces for mass entertainment.

Britain: the Amphitheatres and Theatres

When the Romans arrived in Britain in 43 AD, they brought with them not only their military and administrative systems but also their cultural practices, including forms of public entertainment. Over the next several centuries, the Romans introduced and constructed a variety of entertainment venues, shaping local leisure activities and leaving a legacy that endures in the archaeological record.

One of the most significant types of entertainment venues the Romans introduced to Britain was the amphitheatre. These were used for gladiatorial contests, animal hunts (venationes), and public spectacles. While not as grand as the Colosseum in Rome, several notable amphitheatres were constructed, including Chester, the largest known Roman amphitheatre in Britain, capable of seating thousands and possibly used for military training as well as entertainment; Caerleon (Isca Augusta), a well-preserved example near a major Roman military base; Dorchester (Durnovaria), a smaller amphitheatre likely used for local entertainment; and Cirencester (Corinium Dobunnorum), constructed near the wealthy town of Cirencester, reflecting its urban sophistication. These venues were integral to promoting Roman culture and reinforcing imperial authority in the provinces.

Roman theatres, semicircular in design, were also built in Britain, although they were less common than amphitheatres. These were used for dramatic performances, religious ceremonies, and public meetings. Examples include St Albans (Verulamium), one of the best-known Roman theatres in Britain, capable of hosting a variety of events, and Colchester (Camulodunum), which featured a large theatre connected to a temple, reflecting its dual function for entertainment and religious activities. These theatres introduced Roman drama and other cultural performances to the local population, merging Roman and local traditions.

While not entertainment venues in the strict sense, forums and basilicas served as multipurpose public spaces where spectacles like public speeches, legal proceedings, and ceremonies might occur. These areas were central to civic life and reflected Roman influence on local governance and culture.

There is limited evidence for dedicated circuses or hippodromes in Roman Britain, venues primarily used for chariot racing. The only potential example is the Roman circus discovered in Colchester, which is unique in Britain. Its presence suggests that Colchester, as the first Roman capital, may have been a centre for introducing chariot racing to the province, but this activity appears to have been rare compared to other parts of the Empire.

In smaller settlements and military forts, entertainment may have taken place in temporary or adapted venues, such as open spaces or wooden structures. Roman soldiers stationed in Britain likely organised games and contests, including gladiatorial bouts and athletic competitions, to maintain morale and reinforce Roman identity.

The Romans used entertainment venues as tools for cultural integration and control, promoting Roman customs and values to the native Britons. These venues were spaces where the local population could experience the grandeur of Roman culture, participate in shared spectacles, and witness demonstrations of Roman authority and military prowess. Over time, these venues became symbols of Romanisation, blending Roman traditions with local influences.

In summary, the Romans introduced amphitheatres, theatres, and possibly circuses to Britain, alongside multifunctional spaces like forums and adapted local areas for temporary events. These venues served as cultural hubs, fostering a sense of Roman identity while adapting to the unique characteristics of Britain.

Here’s a list of the Roman structures that have been found in Britain:

The Chester Amphitheatre
Located in modern Chester (Roman Deva Victrix), this is the largest known Roman amphitheatre in Britain. Built in the 1^st century AD, it had seating for an estimated 8,000 people and was likely used for both military training and public entertainment. Archaeological excavations have revealed two main phases of construction, including sandstone seating and an oval arena.

The Caerleon Amphitheatre
Situated in modern-day Caerleon, Wales (Roman Isca Augusta), this amphitheatre was part of a significant Roman legionary fortress. Dating to around AD 80, it could accommodate about 6,000 spectators. The well-preserved remains include evidence of tiered seating, making it one of the most complete examples in Britain.

The Cirencester Amphitheatre
In Cirencester (Roman Corinium Dobunnorum), this amphitheatre is one of the largest in Roman Britain, built in the 2^nd century AD. It could seat approximately 8,000 people and was constructed using earth banks and timber. Although much of it has eroded, its scale indicates the importance of Cirencester as a Roman town.

The Dorchester Amphitheatre (Maumbury Rings)
Located in modern Dorchester (Roman Durnovaria), this site originally served as a Neolithic henge but was repurposed by the Romans into an amphitheatre. With seating for around 10,000 spectators, it highlights how the Romans adapted earlier structures for their own purposes.

The Silchester Amphitheatre
Near the Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum, this amphitheatre was constructed in the early 2^nd century AD. Built using timber and later rebuilt in stone, it was relatively modest in size, accommodating around 3,500 people.

The Londinium Amphitheatre
The Roman amphitheatre in London, located beneath the modern Guildhall in the City of London, is a fascinating relic of Roman Londinium. Discovered during excavations in 1988, it dates back to around 70–80 AD and was in use for approximately 200 years. This amphitheatre, though smaller than others in Roman Britain, was a key centre for entertainment and public gatherings in the provincial capital. Constructed initially from timber and later rebuilt with stone in the early 2^nd century AD, the amphitheatre had an oval arena surrounded by tiered seating that could accommodate an audience of up to 6,000 people. The events held here likely included gladiatorial contests, animal hunts, and public spectacles, which served both to entertain and reinforce Roman culture and authority among the population of Londinium.

The remains of the London Amphitheatre, including the stone foundations and the wooden drains used to manage water and waste, offer remarkable insights into Roman engineering and the role of such facilities in urban life. The site is now integrated into the Guildhall Art Gallery, where visitors can view parts of the amphitheatre’s outline and exhibits detailing its history. Its discovery is a testament to London’s deep Roman heritage and provides a rare glimpse into the social and cultural dynamics of ancient Londinium.

Londinium c.400 AD, showing the location of the amphitheatre near the southeast corner of the Roman fort towards top left
Citation: Amphitheatre (London). (2024, November 25). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphitheatre_(London)
Attribution: Fremantleboy, Drallim (translation), CC BY 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons

Caerleon Amphitheatre (Isca Augusta)
This amphitheatre, located in modern-day Caerleon, Wales, was part of the Roman fortress of Isca Augusta. Built around AD 80, it is one of the best-preserved Roman amphitheatres in Britain. With seating for about 6,000 people, it served as an entertainment venue for soldiers of the Roman Legion stationed there and possibly for the local population.

Carmarthen Amphitheatre (Moridunum)
Carmarthen (Roman Moridunum) in southwest Wales was an important Roman town and the only one in Wales. Its amphitheatre, dating to the late 1^st or early 2^nd century AD, was relatively small and likely served as a local venue for gladiatorial games and community gatherings. It is one of the westernmost Roman amphitheatres in Britain.

Richborough Amphitheatre (Rutupiae)
Richborough, located near modern-day Sandwich in Kent, was a key Roman port and gateway to Britain. While Richborough is most famous for its impressive Roman fortifications, evidence suggests an amphitheatre was also present. It likely catered to the military personnel stationed at this important strategic location.

Chichester Roman Amphitheatre (Noviomagus Reginorum)
The Chichester Roman Amphitheatre, located outside the city walls near the east gate of Noviomagus Reginorum, the Roman name for Chichester. Constructed around 80 AD, it served as a venue for public spectacles such as gladiatorial games, animal hunts, and possibly community events. While the amphitheatre itself has not survived in its original form, its location is still identifiable by the gentle oval-shaped bank in the park where it once stood. The site has been preserved as a green space, and a noticeboard provides historical context for visitors, ensuring the legacy of this Roman structure remains part of Chichester’s rich heritage.

Charterhouse Amphitheatre
The Roman amphitheatre at Charterhouse (in the Mendip Hills, Somerset) is a fascinating yet lesser-known example. Charterhouse was a Roman mining settlement, primarily focused on extracting lead from the Mendip Hills. The amphitheatre here is unique because it was likely associated with the settlement’s mining activities and served as a community gathering space rather than a large urban entertainment venue.

The Charterhouse amphitheatre was constructed in the 1^st century AD and is thought to have been used for both practical and ceremonial purposes, possibly including small-scale games, public meetings, or even religious rituals related to the mining community. Unlike larger amphitheatres in urban centres, this one reflects the more rural and industrial nature of the settlement. The site today is a visible earthwork, with its oval shape discernible in the landscape, although no substantial stone structures remain. It is a testament to how even smaller Roman settlements adopted elements of Roman architecture and culture, integrating them into local contexts.

The Tomen y Mur Arena
The Tomen y Mur arena, located near the Roman fort of Tomen y Mur in Gwynedd, Wales, is an intriguing site. This Roman fort was established around 78–80 AD during the campaigns of Governor Agricola in Wales, and it served as a strategic military base in the region. The “arena” at Tomen y Mur is a small, oval-shaped earthwork situated near the fort, often interpreted as a Roman amphitheatre or training ground.

Unlike grand amphitheatres in larger Roman settlements, the Tomen y Mur arena likely had a dual purpose. It may have been used for military training exercises, such as combat drills or mock battles, essential for the troops stationed at this remote frontier fort. It may also have hosted small-scale entertainments or gatherings for the garrison and possibly the local population. Its earthwork construction, rather than stone, reflects the military and utilitarian focus of the site, as well as the remote location far from Roman urban centres. Today, the arena remains a visible earthwork, providing valuable insights into how the Romans adapted their architectural traditions to suit local needs and environments on the edges of the empire.

The Caerwent Roman Amphitheatre
The Caerwent Roman Amphitheatre, or rather the absence of it, is a curious topic. Caerwent, known in Roman times as Venta Silurum, was a significant Roman town in south Wales and the tribal capital of the Silures. Despite being one of the best-preserved Roman towns in Britain, complete with a forum, basilica, and well-defined city walls, there is no confirmed evidence of an amphitheatre at Caerwent.

This lack is somewhat surprising, given the town’s importance, but it may suggest that the population or the priorities of the settlement did not justify building a dedicated amphitheatre. Alternatively, residents of Caerwent may have travelled to nearby centres, such as Caerleon (Isca Augusta), which had a large and well-equipped amphitheatre, just 12 miles to the west. This proximity may have rendered a local amphitheatre unnecessary.

Archaeological evidence in Caerwent does indicate a vibrant and sophisticated urban life, with mosaics, temples, and houses, but the absence of an amphitheatre underscores the variability of Roman infrastructure across Britain, tailored to the specific needs and roles of each settlement.

Newstead (Trimontium) Amphitheatre
This military amphitheatre, often considered the most northerly amphitheatre in the Roman Empire, is a significant feature of the site. Situated near the northern riverside of the Roman fort and camp complex, the amphitheatre is still visible today as a grassy hollow with substantial earthwork banking.

The amphitheatre likely served a dual purpose: as a training ground for soldiers stationed at the fort and as a venue for military ceremonies or spectacles. Its location at such a remote frontier underscores the importance of maintaining Roman military culture, even in the empire’s northernmost regions. While it was primarily utilitarian, it may also have hosted occasional entertainment events to maintain morale among the troops.

This discovery adds an important dimension to the understanding of Roman presence in Scotland, showing that even in these far-flung areas, elements of Roman architectural and cultural traditions were implemented.

The St Albans Amphitheatre
The St Albans amphitheatre was part of the Roman city of Verulamium, one of the most significant towns in Roman Britain. Built in the early 2^nd century AD, it is unique because it is often referred to as a theatre-amphitheatre hybrid, combining features of both types of structures. Unlike traditional oval amphitheatres, it has a more semicircular design, suggesting it may have been used for a variety of purposes, including theatrical performances, public spectacles, and possibly gladiatorial combat or animal displays.

The site, located near the Verulamium Museum, is well-preserved, with visible remnants of seating and the arena floor. Excavations have revealed evidence of several phases of use and modifications, highlighting its importance to the town’s social and cultural life.

St Albans’ amphitheatre is a key part of the city’s Roman legacy, reflecting the blend of Roman architectural styles and the integration of entertainment into urban life.

These amphitheatres not only provided entertainment but also reinforced Roman culture and authority in Britain, serving as tangible reminders of the empire’s power and architectural ingenuity. Their remains today offer valuable insights into Roman urban planning and societal priorities.

Roman Amphitheatres in Scotland

The Roman presence in Scotland (Caledonia) was more military-focused than urban, with forts like Vindolanda, Trimontium, and the Antonine Wall being the primary archaeological remains. The Romans never established large, permanent urban centres in Scotland similar to those in southern Britain, which would have been necessary to support an amphitheatre. The military emphasis and frequent conflicts with local tribes likely precluded the construction of such entertainment structures.

Concluding Words

The public events and spectacles of ancient Rome and Roman Britain reveal a fascinating intersection of culture, politics, and entertainment that profoundly shaped both societies. These spectacles served as much more than mere diversions; they were integral to the Roman identity, reinforcing the social hierarchy, projecting imperial authority, and fostering a shared sense of belonging among diverse and disparate populations.

In Rome, public spectacles such as gladiatorial games, chariot races, theatrical performances, and animal hunts were meticulously orchestrated to reflect the grandeur and organisational prowess of the empire. These events were held in purpose-built structures like the Colosseum and Circus Maximus, which stood as enduring symbols of Roman engineering and cultural sophistication. These venues were not only marvels of architectural innovation but also exemplified the Romans’ commitment to creating spaces that could accommodate the needs of vast and diverse audiences.

Roman Britain, as a province of the empire, adopted and adapted these traditions, introducing its own flavour to public events. Amphitheatres like those in Chester, Caerleon, and Londinium, although smaller in scale compared to the Colosseum, played a pivotal role in Romanising the local population. These structures hosted events that served to entertain, educate, and integrate the Britons into the Roman way of life. The blending of indigenous traditions with Roman practices fostered a hybrid cultural identity, reflected in the adaptations of local flora and fauna in games and the dual religious and entertainment purposes of theatres.

The Role of Venues and Infrastructure
Amphitheatres, circuses, and theatres were more than just physical venues; they were embodiments of Roman ideals and the empire’s capacity to impose its cultural imprint across its provinces. The construction of these venues was a statement of Roman dominance, showcasing their ability to build grand and enduring structures in even the farthest corners of their empire. Roman Britain, despite being on the empire’s periphery, benefited from these architectural feats. Amphitheatres like those in Cirencester and Silchester stand as testaments to the widespread influence of Roman engineering and urban planning.

The use of advanced technology, such as the hypogeum for dramatic entrances and retractable awnings for audience comfort, exemplified the ingenuity of Roman designers. Even in provinces like Britain, where resources and conditions differed from those in Rome, the adaptation of these innovations demonstrated the empire’s ability to maintain a consistent cultural experience across its territories.

Social Hierarchies and Public Engagement
Public spectacles in ancient Rome and Roman Britain provided a unique lens through which to view the social hierarchies of the time. Seating arrangements within these venues were meticulously organised to reflect and reinforce societal stratification. In Rome, senators and equestrians occupied the best seats, while women and the lower classes were relegated to the upper tiers. This rigid organisation ensured that social order was visibly maintained even in the midst of mass gatherings.

Despite the inherent inequalities, these events were also a means of uniting the populace. The communal experience of watching a gladiatorial game or a chariot race allowed for a temporary suspension of everyday divisions, creating a shared cultural identity that transcended class boundaries. In Britain, the integration of Roman entertainment into local traditions furthered this sense of community, providing a platform for cultural exchange and mutual understanding.

Economic and Political Dimensions
The economic impact of public spectacles was substantial, generating employment and stimulating local economies. From the training of gladiators and the procurement of exotic animals to the maintenance of venues and the production of props, these events created a web of economic activity that benefited various sectors of Roman society. In Roman Britain, this economic stimulus was particularly significant, as it helped to integrate the province into the broader imperial economy.

Politically, these spectacles were powerful tools for emperors and local elites to assert their authority and win public favour. The sponsorship of games and performances was a means of demonstrating generosity and reinforcing loyalty. Emperors like Augustus and Nero utilised public events to bolster their images, with Augustus promoting traditional values and Nero indulging in extravagant displays. In Roman Britain, local leaders used these spectacles to align themselves with Roman customs and demonstrate their allegiance to the empire.

The Ethical Dilemmas of Roman Entertainment
The popularity of public spectacles in ancient Rome was not without its critics. Philosophers like Seneca and Cicero condemned the brutality and excesses of the games, viewing them as symptoms of moral decline. These critiques highlight the tension between the cultural significance of these events and their ethical implications. The violence inherent in gladiatorial combat and animal hunts, while entertaining for the masses, also raised questions about the desensitisation of spectators and the commodification of human and animal lives.

In Roman Britain, similar ethical considerations likely arose, although the historical record is less vocal on this issue. The adaptation of spectacles to include local customs and resources suggests an attempt to mitigate some of these concerns, but the fundamental nature of these events remained rooted in violence and domination.

The Legacy of Public Spectacles
The decline of Roman public spectacles in Britain coincided with the empire’s withdrawal, yet their influence endured long after the fall of Roman rule. The architectural remnants of amphitheatres and theatres became part of the cultural landscape, influencing medieval tournaments and fairs. The organisation of public gatherings and the spectacle of knightly jousts bore the imprint of Roman traditions, ensuring the continuity of certain elements of Roman culture.

Today, the ruins of venues like the Chester Amphitheatre and the theatre at St Albans serve as tangible links to the past, inviting reflection on the complexities of Roman entertainment and its enduring impact on Western civilisation. These sites remind us of the Romans’ ability to blend spectacle with societal control, creating events that were as much about reinforcing power and identity as they were about providing amusement.

Final Reflections

The public events of ancient Rome and Roman Britain stand as a testament to the ingenuity, ambition, and contradictions of Roman civilisation. They reveal a society that excelled in creating shared cultural experiences while maintaining a rigid social hierarchy. They were arenas of entertainment, tools of political propaganda, and symbols of imperial might, all rolled into one.

In Roman Britain, these spectacles served as bridges between the conquerors and the conquered, fostering a sense of shared identity while reinforcing the power dynamics of the empire. The adaptations made to accommodate local traditions and resources illustrate the flexibility and pragmatism of Roman cultural policies.

Ultimately, the public spectacles of ancient Rome and Roman Britain offer valuable insights into the human desire for community, identity, and expression. They remind us that entertainment, in all its forms, is a reflection of the society that produces it—a mirror of its values, aspirations, and contradictions. Through the lens of these ancient events, we gain a deeper understanding of the Roman world and its lasting legacy on the cultures that followed.

These are friezes (and some gravestones) representing gladiators and other scenes related to the games, like tamers of the wild animals, found at Kibyra in Gölhisar, Burdur (Turkey) province
Attribution: Dosseman, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

Appendix 1: Glossary of Amphitheatre and Gladiator, Words and Terms^[11]

A

• Aedile (Aedilis): A Roman magistrate responsible for organising public games (ludi) and spectacles and maintaining public buildings and infrastructure. These officials often sponsored games to gain popularity and political support, using their positions to fund events like gladiatorial contests or chariot races.
• Amphitheatre (Amphitheatrum): A large, open-air oval or circular venue designed for public spectacles, such as gladiatorial combats, animal hunts, and public executions. Amphitheatres like the Colosseum in Rome and those in Chester and Caerleon in Britain symbolised Roman architectural innovation and cultural influence.
• Amphitheatrum Flavium: The original name of the Colosseum.
• Andabata: A gladiator who fought blindfolded or wore a helmet with no eye openings, making their combat unpredictable and highly entertaining for spectators. These fighters were a rarity and often featured in novelty matches.
• Annona: A state-sponsored system ensuring the distribution of grain and sometimes meat to Roman citizens, often associated with the generosity of emperors during public games.
• Arbelas: A gladiator type armed with a curved blade resembling a crescent.
• Arena: The central area where gladiatorial combats took place.
• Armatura: A term referring to the weapons and armour used by gladiators, often tailored to their specific combat roles.
• Armamentarium: An armoury where weapons and other military equipment were stored. In the context of gladiatorial games, the armamentarium would have been a secure facility within or near the gladiatorial school (ludus gladiatorius) or the arena, where the weapons and gear for the games were kept and maintained. This included swords, shields, helmets, and other equipment used by the gladiators.
• Atrium: A central open area in Roman buildings, sometimes used for smaller, informal gatherings or displays of public hospitality during festivals.
• Auctorati: Free citizens who volunteered to become gladiators.

B

• Bacchanalia: Festivals dedicated to Bacchus, the god of wine, often associated with wild revelry and later regulated by the Senate due to their excesses.
• Balteus: A wide, protective belt holding weapons, worn by gladiators around the waist, often decorated with intricate designs to signify rank or status.
• Bellatrix: A female warrior or gladiatrix.
• Bestiarii: Animal hunters or fighters in the arena.
• Bestiarius: A type of performer or fighter who specialises in combat with wild animals. Unlike traditional gladiators, bestiarii were often poorly armed and required agility and strategy to survive encounters with lions, tigers, or bears.
• Bipalium: A two-headed weapon used by some gladiators.
• Bipalus: A gladiator who used two swords simultaneously, showcasing a rare and challenging fighting style.
• Bisellium: A special seat of honour for distinguished guests in the amphitheatre.
• Bulla: A protective amulet worn by Roman children to ward off evil spirits, sometimes offered as a token to the gods before adulthood.
• Bustuarius: A term for early gladiators who fought at funeral rites (munera) to honour the deceased. Their combats symbolised the deceased’s power and courage.

C

• Caesim: A cutting or slashing motion performed with a sword, commonly used in gladiatorial combat as opposed to thrusting movements.
• Caldarium: The hot room in Roman bathhouses, often used by spectators or performers to relax before or after events.
• Carceres: The starting gates in a Roman circus or amphitheatre.
• Carnifex: The executioner responsible for dispatching defeated gladiators.
• Cavea: The sloping floor and seating area in an amphitheatre.
• Cena Libera: A public feast held the evening before gladiatorial games, where spectators could meet the fighters. This event heightened anticipation and allowed the public to see the gladiators outside of combat.
• Cestus: A type of ancient boxing glove (more like a knuckleduster) used by some gladiators.
• Circus: A large, oval-shaped venue designed for chariot racing and other public entertainments. The Circus Maximus in Rome was the largest and could accommodate up to 250,000 spectators.
• Clipea: A series of decorative bronze shields around the top stories of the Colosseum that were added by the Emperor Domitian.
• Cloaca Maxima: The main sewerage system of Rome, originally built in the 6^th century BC during the reign of the Etruscan kings, it was designed to drain water from the city, particularly from the low-lying Forum area, into the Tiber River.
• Clypeus: A large, round shield used by some types of gladiators.
• Colosseum: The name derives from the Latin word colosseus, meaning “colossal,” referencing the enormous statue of Emperor Nero, the Colossus of Nero, which originally stood nearby. After Nero’s death, the statue was repurposed and eventually associated with the amphitheatre due to its proximity. While the Romans called the structure the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Flavian Amphitheatre), the name Colosseum became widely used in later centuries.
• Consilium: An advisory body or council that often played a role in organising or supervising public events.
• Crypta: An underground passageway or corridor.
• Cuneus: The wedge-shaped seating sections in Roman amphitheatres, organised to reflect the social hierarchy of the audience.

D

• Damnati ad Bestias: Condemned criminals sentenced to die in the arena, often by being thrown to wild animals. This form of execution was both a punishment and a spectacle.
• Decianus: A type of gladiator with specific armour and weaponry.
• Decretum: The decree that decided the fate of a defeated gladiator.
• Decurion: A member of the local council in Roman towns who might be responsible for overseeing public games and events.
• Dediticii: Enslaved people or prisoners of war who were forced into gladiatorial combat or other forms of entertainment.
• Dimachaerus: A type of gladiator who wielded two swords, showcasing exceptional skill and dexterity.
• Discens: A trainee gladiator.
• Doctor: A trainer or instructor in a gladiatorial school (ludus). Each doctor specialised in a particular type of gladiator, such as retiarii (net fighters) or murmillos (heavily armed fighters).
• Domus: A private house in Roman cities, sometimes used for smaller-scale entertainment or receptions.
• Domus Aurea: The palace of Nero was called the Domus Aurea (Latin for “Golden House”). After Nero’s death, much of the Domus Aurea was dismantled or repurposed by his successors, who sought to erase his legacy. Emperor Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, reclaimed a significant portion of the land occupied by Nero’s palace, including the artificial lake that was part of its gardens. This area became the site for the construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, later known as the Colosseum.

E

• Editor: The sponsor, financier or organiser of public games, often a wealthy individual or magistrate seeking political favour. Editors financed the games, paying for gladiators, animals, and other expenses to win public approval.
• Eniunctus: A special rule or command given to gladiators. In Latin literature, it refers to a figure of speech or rhetorical device in which an unexpected or indirect expression is used to convey a particular idea. It often involves a circumlocution or a deliberately obscure way of stating something, requiring the audience to interpret or infer the intended meaning.
• Epolia: Special events held in the amphitheatre for entertainment. For example, during the reign of Emperor Titus, the opening of the Colosseum in AD 80 featured an epolia that lasted for 100 days. These games included not only traditional gladiatorial combats but also grand animal hunts, staged naval battles (naumachiae), and the execution of prisoners through elaborate theatrical displays. Such events were rare and marked a significant celebration or political occasion, drawing immense public attention and acclaim.
• Equites: Mounted gladiators who began their fights on horseback.
• Essedarius: A gladiator who fought from a chariot, inspired by Celtic chariot warfare. Their appearances were rare and designed for spectacle.
• Etruscan Games: Early forms of public spectacles originating in Etruria, which influenced the development of Roman gladiatorial combat.
• Eumachia: A prominent Roman woman who funded public buildings, illustrating the influence of elite patrons in society.
• Euripus: An elongated pool, often decorated with sculptures and bridges. The Euripus served practical and theatrical purposes. It could hold water for staged naval battles (naumachiae), recreating maritime conflicts and showcasing Roman engineering. It acted as a barrier, protecting spectators from wild animals during venationes, and functioned as a drainage system for the arena floor, especially after mock battles or cleaning. This feature highlighted Roman ingenuity in arena design.
• Evocati: Veteran soldiers who voluntarily re-enlisted, sometimes participating in ceremonial roles during public events.
• Exedra: A semicircular recessed seating area in public spaces, often used for discussions or smaller gatherings/meetings during festivals.

F

• Familia Gladiatoria: A group or troop of gladiators.
• Fasciae: Wrappings used by gladiators to protect their limbs.
• Fascina (or Tridens): A trident, a three-pronged spear used primarily by the retiarius gladiators. It was designed for thrusting and keeping opponents at a distance, often used in combination with a net.
• Ferox: A fierce or wild gladiator.
• Focale: A scarf worn by gladiators to protect their necks.
• Fulgurator: A gladiator who performed lightning-fast attacks.
• Fuscina: The trident used by a retiarius.

G

• Galea: A helmet worn by gladiators, offering protection for the head and face. The design varied depending on the gladiator type, often featuring crests, plumes, or other decorative elements to distinguish fighters.
• Galerus: A metal shoulder guard worn by retiarius gladiators. It provided protection for the neck and upper chest, compensating for the lack of a helmet and other armour.
• Gladiator: A professional combatant trained to entertain audiences through armed combat. Gladiators came from various backgrounds, including slaves, prisoners of war, and voluntary recruits (auctorati).
• Gladius: The short, double-edged sword used by Roman soldiers and some classes of gladiators. It was the primary weapon for murmillos and secutores.
• Graeculus: A term used for Greek performers or intellectuals who often contributed to the entertainment in Roman theatres.
• Gladiatrix: A female gladiator.
• Gradus: In the context of Roman amphitheatres, gradus referred to the tiered seating levels or steps. The gradus were arranged in a hierarchical manner to reflect the social stratification of Roman society. The lowest level, the podium was closest to the arena, reserved for senators, magistrates, and other elite members of society. The next tier, the Maenianum Primum, seated the equestrian class (wealthy citizens just below the senatorial rank). Higher up, the Maenianum Secundum was divided into two sections—one for ordinary Roman citizens (men) and one for women and the lower classes. Lastly, at the top, the Summum Maenianum was for slaves, foreigners, and the poorest spectators.
• Gravestone: Memorials for fallen gladiators. While gravestones could serve as memorials for fallen gladiators, they were not exclusively used for this purpose. Gladiators who achieved fame or had patrons might receive specially inscribed gravestones, often erected by their comrades, family, or owners. These memorials frequently included the gladiator’s name, age, origin, the type of gladiator they were (e.g., retiarius or murmillo), and sometimes their record in the arena. For less prominent gladiators, memorials were less common, as many were slaves or lower-class individuals without resources for such commemorations.
• Gregatim: Gladiatorial fights involving groups rather than individuals, often staged as chaotic skirmishes, historical reenactments, or thematic battles, providing thrilling spectacles for Roman audiences.

H

• Harena: Meaning sand in Latin, covered the floor of the arena from which the word arena was derived – a reference to the thick layer of sand on the floor for the purpose of soaking up blood.
• Helena: A legendary female gladiator mentioned in inscriptions, representing the rare presence of women in the arena.
• Hilaria: Festivals dedicated to joy and mirth, sometimes including games and performances.
• Honorius: The Emperor Honorius is traditionally credited with decreeing the end of gladiatorial contests in 404 AD, following the martyrdom of the monk Telemachus.
• Hoplomachus: A gladiator equipped with a spear and a small round shield, inspired by Greek hoplite warriors. They often engaged in fights resembling military training.
• Horreum: A storage facility for grain and other supplies, often supporting the logistics of large public events.
• Hydraulis: A water-powered organ used to provide music during games and spectacles.
• Hypogeum: The underground complex beneath the arena floor in large amphitheatres, such as the Colosseum. It housed animals, gladiators, and stage equipment, with mechanisms like lifts and trapdoors for dramatic entrances.

I

• Immunes: Gladiators who were excused from fighting due to injury or illness.
• Imperator: The title given to a victorious general, often used by emperors who attended the games.
• Imperial Box: The Imperial Box in Roman amphitheatres, such as the Colosseum, was a special seating area reserved for the Emperor and his entourage. Known as the pulvinar in Latin, it was a luxurious and prominently located section that offered the best view of the arena, symbolising the emperor’s authority and central role in public life.
• Incitatus: The signal to start a gladiatorial combat. The Incitatus signal to start gladiatorial combat was typically given by the editor of the games through a verbal command, a dropped cloth (mappa), or a musical cue like a trumpet blast, depending on the occasion.
• Infamia: The loss of social status that came with becoming a gladiator.
• Inscriptio: Inscriptions or graffiti found on the walls of gladiatorial schools and arenas.
• Iugula: The cry for death in the arena, meaning “throat” or “jugular.”
• Iuvenis: A young or novice gladiator.

J

NOTE: In classical Latin, there was no separate letter “J.” The Romans used the letter “I” to represent both the vowel and the consonantal sounds later distinguished as “I” and “J” in modern alphabets. The consonantal “I” sound (as in Iugula) eventually evolved into the “J” sound in medieval Latin and modern languages derived from Latin, such as English and Italian (and all the Romance languages).

K

• Kataphractos (Greek origin): Referring to armoured fighters or cavalry, though this term is more applicable to heavily armoured soldiers than gladiators.
• Kestros (Greek origin): A type of weapon, though rarely associated with gladiatorial games.

NOTE: For pure Latin terms in the context of amphitheatres and gladiators, the letter C would have been used instead of K (e.g., Caestus for a type of fighting glove or Cavea for the seating area).

L

• Lamina: Thin metal plates used in gladiatorial armour.
• Laminam: A type of body Armor worn by some gladiators.
• Lanista: The owner or manager of a gladiatorial school (ludus), responsible for acquiring, training, and selling gladiators. Lanistae negotiated contracts with editors and maintained the fighters under their care.
• Lectus: A reclining couch used in Roman banquets, sometimes set up for prominent spectators during games.
• Libellus: A small booklet or program distributed to spectators, detailing the schedule and participants of the games.
• Libitina: The goddess of funerals and burials, associated with gladiatorial games. Libitina was symbolically linked to gladiatorial games due to the frequent deaths in the arena. Her temple oversaw funerary rites and maintained death records (Libitinae Tabulae), possibly including fatalities from the games. Attendants (libitinarii) managed the removal of fallen gladiators, reinforcing Libitina’s association with mortality and the rituals surrounding death.
• Loricatus: A heavily armoured gladiator or soldier.
• Loricula: A smaller version of the lorica, or armour.
• Ludi: Public games held for entertainment, which included theatrical performances, chariot races, and gladiatorial contests. These games were often tied to religious festivals or imperial celebrations.
• Ludus: A gladiatorial training school where recruits lived and trained. The Ludus Magnus in Rome was the largest and most renowned.

M

• Maenianum Summum In ligneis: Wooden spectator seats which were set up in the gallery running around the very top wall of the amphitheatre.
• Magister: A term for a master or chief teacher, often overseeing gladiatorial training or ceremonies.
• Manica: An arm guard worn by gladiators.
• Mappa: A white cloth used by officials to signal the start of races in the circus.
• Metae: The turning posts in a circus, marking the ends of the spina (central barrier).
• Missio: A plea for mercy by a defeated gladiator, which could result in their life being spared by the editor or crowd.
• Mortifer: A gladiator whose role was to kill defeated opponents.
• Munerarius: The sponsor or giver of the games.
• Munus (plural: Munera): Originally meaning “service” or “duty,” this term came to refer specifically to gladiatorial games provided by wealthy citizens as a public obligation or display of generosity.
• Murmillo (plural: Murmillones): A heavily armoured gladiator who fought with a large rectangular shield (scutum) and a short sword (gladius). Their crested helmets were designed to resemble fish, linking them symbolically to water and Neptune.

N

• Naumachia: Mock naval battles staged as grand spectacles. These events required vast amounts of water and were sometimes held in specially constructed basins or temporarily flooded amphitheatres.
• Nematocera: A type of net used by Retiarii.
• Neronia: Games instituted by Emperor Nero, featuring music, poetry, and athletic contests.
• Nexus: A bond servant. In Roman law, a nexus was a bond servant who pledged himself as collateral for a debt. Unable to repay, they worked for the creditor until the debt was satisfied. This system, prone to abuse, was reformed by the Lex Poetelia of 326 BC to limit exploitation. Those in severe debt might sell themselves into gladiatorial schools (ludi gladiatorii) as a last resort to avoid financial ruin.
• Nomus: The official who supervised the games.
• Novicius: A novice gladiator still in training.
• Noxii: Criminals or prisoners sentenced to die in the arena, often without weapons or training, serving as fodder for wild animals or experienced gladiators.
• Nundinae: Market days in Roman towns, often accompanied by games or smaller public spectacles.

O

• Obligatio: The contract signed by a person who volunteered to become a gladiator.
• Ocreae: Ocreae were leg guards worn by some gladiators for protection during combat. They were typically made of metal, such as bronze or iron, to shield the lower legs from strikes. Occasionally, they might be reinforced with leather for additional padding and comfort. The design and material often varied depending on the type of gladiator, with heavily armoured fighters like the Murmillo using sturdier ocreae, while lighter gladiators like the Thraex wore smaller or single-leg guards for agility.
• Oppida: Towns or fortresses where gladiators might fight.
• Optiones: Assistants or deputies to the chief instructors in a ludus.
• Opus: The physical training and exercises performed by gladiators.
• Oratio: The formal speech given by the editor at the start of the games.
• Orchestra: The semicircular area in front of the stage, used for seating in Roman theatres and amphitheatres.

P

• Palus: A wooden stake used in gladiatorial training to practice strikes and defensive manoeuvres. Gladiators would spar against it to hone their skills.
• Parma: A small round shield used by some gladiators.
• Parmularius: A gladiator who fought with a small shield (parma), requiring speed and precision to counter larger opponents.
• Podium: The raised platform where the emperor or important figures sat during events.
• Pollice Verso: The gesture (debated) indicating a gladiator’s fate. Contrary to modern depictions, the precise nature and meaning of the gesture (thumb up or down) remain uncertain in historical sources.
• Pompa: A ceremonial procession that marked the beginning of public games, featuring the editor, gladiators, musicians, and representations of the gods.
• Porta Libitinensis: One of the gates in a Roman amphitheatre, most famously in the Colosseum, associated with the removal of dead gladiators and other deceased participants from the arena. The name derives from Libitina, the Roman goddess of funerals and death, further linking the gate to its grim purpose.
• Porta Sanavivaria: The gate in Roman amphitheatres through which victorious or surviving gladiators exited. Its name, meaning “Gate of the Living,” symbolised life and triumph, contrasting with the deathly Porta Libitinensis. It celebrated survival and success, highlighting the duality of life and death in Roman spectacles.
• Porta Triumphalis: The ceremonial gate in Roman amphitheatres through which gladiators and performers entered the arena. It symbolised victory, honour, and the grandeur of the games, serving as a dramatic entry point for participants to showcase their readiness for combat or performance.
• Praecinctiones: Horizontal passageways or walkways in Roman amphitheatres, such as the Colosseum, that divided the seating tiers into sections. Their primary purpose was to facilitate movement within the amphitheatre, allowing spectators to easily access their designated seats.
• Provocator: A type of gladiator who challenged others to fight. While all gladiators fought opponents, the Provocator was a specific type of gladiator with unique characteristics. The name means “challenger,” but this did not imply that they exclusively initiated combat. Instead, the Provocator was distinct for their armour and fighting style, which included a breastplate (cardiophylax), a large rectangular shield (scutum), and a gladius (short sword). They often fought against other Provocatores, and their battles were less about raw spectacle and more about skill and discipline, often symbolising a duel of equals. Thus, while all gladiators engaged in combat, the Provocator had a specialised role within the arena symbolising a more traditional and disciplined form of combat. Unlike many other gladiators who fought with exotic weapons or styles to entertain the crowd, the Provocator was heavily armoured and fought in a manner resembling Roman soldiers, often seen as a representation of Roman martial values. Their battles were typically staged as contests of equals, usually against other Provocatores, emphasising skill, endurance, and strategy over flair or theatrics. This gave their fights a unique appeal, contrasting with the more chaotic or exotic displays of other gladiator types.
• Pugio: A small dagger used by some gladiators.

Q

• Quadrigae: Four-horse chariots used in some gladiatorial displays.
• Quaestio: A Quaestio, or investigation into misconduct in the games, was typically carried out by officials such as the editor (the sponsor of the games) or a magistrate, depending on the nature and severity of the issue. If the misconduct involved criminal activities, such as rigging fights or violations of public order, higher-ranking officials like praetors or even the emperor could become involved, particularly during imperial times. The investigating official had significant powers, including interrogation of participants, organisers, and witnesses, and examination of evidence. They could impose penalties, ranging from fines and revocation of privileges to execution for serious crimes like treachery or corruption. They also had oversight of arena management, addressing unsafe conditions or breaches of contracts. This ensured the games maintained their integrity as public spectacles reflecting Roman discipline and order.
• Quaestor: The official responsible for financial and administrative aspects of the games.
• Quinquatria: The Quinquatria was an ancient Roman festival dedicated to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, war, and the arts. Celebrated annually from 19^th to 23^rd March, it was a significant event that included a variety of rituals, festivities, and public spectacles. During the Quinquatria, games and performances might be held as part of the celebrations. These could include gladiatorial combat, theatrical plays, and athletic contests, showcasing Roman culture and providing entertainment for the populace. The festival’s connection to Minerva, a patroness of crafts and learning, also made it a time for artisans and students to honour the goddess. Initially, the Quinquatria was a one-day festival, but by the late Republic and early Empire, it had expanded to five days, with the first day reserved for religious observances and the remaining days dedicated to games and festivities. The festival was an important social and cultural event, blending religious devotion with public entertainment
• Quinquereme: A type of warship used in naumachiae.
• Quintus: The title given to a gladiator who fought five opponents in one day. Likewise, a gladiator who fought six opponents might be referred to as Sextus (from sex, meaning “six”); a gladiator who fought seven opponents might be called Septimus (from septem, meaning “seven”).

R

Retiarius: A lightly armed gladiator who wielded a trident, dagger, and net, often fighting against a secutor. Their lack of armour made them agile, relying on speed and skill to ensnare their opponents.

Rudis: A wooden sword symbolising freedom, awarded to gladiators upon retirement as a token of their release from service.

Rostrum: The platform from which the editor would address the crowd.

Rota: The wheel used in some executions and punishments.

Rudiarius: A retired gladiator who had been granted freedom.

Rudis: A wooden sword given to gladiators upon their retirement.

S

• Sagittarii: Archers who fought in the arena.
• Samnite: A type of heavily armed gladiator.
• Saniarium: Functioning much like a First Aid post, a saniarium was a designated area where injured gladiators and participants were taken to receive immediate medical attention. Staffed by medics or surgeons, it aimed to stabilise wounds, treat injuries, and potentially save lives, ensuring the continuity of the games and the survival of valuable combatants whenever possible.
• Scaenici: Performers in the arena who took part in dramatic reenactments.
• Scutum: A large, rectangular shield used by Roman legionaries and heavily armoured gladiators like murmillos and secutores.
• Secutor: A gladiator equipped with a smooth, rounded helmet and heavy armour, specifically designed to counter the retiarius. Their streamlined helmet prevented entanglement by the net.
• Sparsores: People who sprinkled water to cool down the arena and reduce dust.
• Spectacula: A term used for gladiatorial shows or the venues where they were held. It highlights the dual meaning of the events and the spaces that hosted them.
• Spiculum: A type of spear used by some gladiators.
• Summum Choragium: The main storage area in Roman amphitheatres, used to house weapons, armour, props, and stage machinery for gladiatorial games and spectacles. It ensured efficient organisation and preparation for events. It was typically located beneath or adjacent to the arena in Roman amphitheatres. In the Colosseum, it would have been part of the hypogeum—the underground complex beneath the arena floor.
• Summa Rudis: The chief referee overseeing gladiatorial combat, ensuring adherence to the rules and fairness during matches.

T

• Tepidarium: A warm room in Roman baths where gladiators might relax.
• Tessera: Tokens given to spectators for entry to the games.
• Thraex (Thracian): A type of gladiator armed with a curved sword (sica) and a small, square shield. Known for their agility and offensive tactics, they were often pitted against murmillos.
• Thrax: Another term for Thracian gladiators.
• Tiberius: A type of gladiator who fought with a trident and net.
• Tiro: A novice gladiator.
• Tunica: The tunic worn by gladiators.

U

• Ultor: A term meaning “avenger,” sometimes used for a gladiator seeking revenge.
• Umbella: A ceremonial umbrella used in parades.
• Umbo: The central boss on a shield. It was not merely decorative but served a practical purpose. Made of metal, it reinforced the shield’s centre and provided additional protection. In combat, the umbo could deflect blows aimed at the shield, reducing the impact on the wielder. Additionally, it could be used offensively, allowing the shield to function as a striking weapon to push or injure opponents. While some umbi were intricately designed and might have had decorative elements, their primary function was defensive and tactical.
• Urceus: A type of vessel or jug used in the arena. In the context of gladiatorial games, water might be poured from an urceus for purification rituals before combat, or it could be used to wash down blood from the arena floor between fights. While water or wine jugs for refreshment existed, the urceus in this setting was more likely tied to these functional or symbolic uses.
• Urinator: Divers who retrieved items from the flooded arena during naumachiae.
• Urnarium: A place where the ashes of fallen gladiators were kept.
• Uxor: The wife of a gladiator.

V

• Vela: The awnings used to shade spectators in the amphitheatre.
• Velarium: The retractable awning used in amphitheatres to protect spectators from the sun. Velarium is the overall system, while velaria refers to its component parts. Both terms are connected to the same architectural feature. Operated by sailors, it demonstrated Roman engineering ingenuity.
• Venatio: A type of entertainment involving the hunting and killing of wild animals.
• Venationes: Staged animal hunts that showcased exotic beasts such as lions, leopards, and elephants. These events symbolised and affirmed Rome’s control over nature and its dominion over distant lands.
• Venator: A hunter or animal fighter in the arena.
• Vespasiano: This refers both to Emperor Vespasian and to public toilets, named after him due to his introduction of the vectigal urinae (urine tax). This tax was levied on urine collected from public urinals for industrial use. Over time, public latrines came to be associated with his name, reflecting his pragmatic approach to generating revenue. In Roman public toilets, men and women were not typically separated. Most latrinae were communal spaces designed for practicality and efficiency rather than privacy, reflecting the Roman attitude toward public hygiene as a shared civic necessity.
• Vestiplicus: An attendant who helped gladiators with both their costumes and their armour. Their role would have involved ensuring that the gladiators were properly attired and ready for combat or ceremonial appearances. This included securing and adjusting armour pieces such as helmets, ocreae (leg guards), and breastplates, as well as arranging any decorative elements or clothing associated with their specific gladiatorial type, like loincloths or tunics. The vestiplicus also ensured the gladiator’s gear fit correctly and was in good condition to provide both mobility and protection. Their contribution was crucial for the gladiators’ safety and presentation in the arena.
• Vestal Virgin Box: The Vestal Virgin Box in Roman amphitheatres, such as the Colosseum, was a reserved seating area for the Vestal Virgins, priestesses of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. Located in a prime position near the arena, it reflected their elevated status and importance in Roman society. The Vestal Virgins were among the most respected figures in Roman religion, dedicated to maintaining the sacred flame of Vesta, symbolising Rome’s eternal life. Chosen as young girls from patrician families, they served for 30 years: 10 years training, 10 years performing duties, and 10 years teaching new initiates. Their presence at public events symbolised religious propriety and ensured divine favour for the games.
• Victor: The winning gladiator in a combat. A Victor Ludorum was the “winner of the games” in ancient Roman contexts.
• Vomitorium: A passageway in an amphitheatre used for the rapid exit of crowds.

W

NOTE: terms or names beginning with W are missing in the context of amphitheatres and gladiators, as this letter was not used in classical Latin.

X

• Xiphus: A short, double-edged sword of Greek origin, sometimes used by gladiators, illustrating the cultural blending in Roman combat styles.

Y

NOTE: terms or names beginning with Y are missing in the context of amphitheatres and gladiators, as this letter was not used in classical Latin.

Z

• Zelus: A Latinised version of the Greek word for zeal, symbolising the gladiator’s determination and fighting spirit.
• Zenith: Though not specific to Roman terms, this term metaphorically describes the peak moments of a gladiator’s career or the height of the Roman Empire’s entertainment culture.

Appendix 2: Famous Gladiators

• Androcles: A legendary figure associated with the tale of a slave who removed a thorn from a lion’s paw. When later thrown into the arena, the lion recognised him and spared his life, highlighting themes of loyalty and compassion.
• Asteropaeus: Likely a symbolic or legendary gladiator whose name was inspired by a mythological warrior from The Iliad. His name evokes heroism and strength, and he may have been celebrated in story more than reality.
• Carpophorus: Known as a bestiarius, Carpophorus specialised in fighting wild animals in the arena. He was renowned for his extraordinary skill and courage, reportedly defeating multiple wild beasts in single encounters.
• Celer: A renowned gladiator mentioned in ancient Roman inscriptions, Celer’s name is often associated with speed and skill. He was likely admired for his agility and quick victories.
• Commodus: The Roman Emperor Commodus (reigned 180–192 AD) considered himself a gladiator and fought in the arena, though his combats were heavily staged. He often fought against animals or poorly armed opponents. Commodus’s association with gladiatorial games was controversial and contributed to his reputation as an eccentric and unfit ruler.
• Crixus: Gallic gladiator and close ally of Spartacus, Crixus fought alongside him in the revolt but eventually parted ways to lead his own force. Crixus’s smaller group was defeated in battle, but his role in the uprising solidified his place in history.
• Drusus: Known from inscriptions praising his endurance and skill, Drusus was likely a regional gladiatorial star active in the 1^st or 2^nd century AD.
• Flamma: Flamma was a Syrian gladiator celebrated for his impressive career, reportedly fighting 34 times and winning 21 matches. Despite being offered freedom four times, he chose to remain a gladiator, possibly due to the fame and rewards that came with his success.
• Hermes: A versatile gladiator celebrated for his mastery of multiple fighting styles. Hermes was renowned for his agility and ability to entertain the crowd. Likely active in the 1^st or 2^nd century AD.
• Kalendio: A bestiarius who demonstrated exceptional courage and skill while battling wild animals in the arena. Likely active in the late 1^st century AD.
• Marcus Attilius: A novice (tiro) gladiator who became famous for defeating a veteran named Hilarus, who was owned by Emperor Nero. This unexpected victory symbolised the rise of new fighters. Likely fought in the mid-1^st century AD.
• Mevia: A female gladiator (gladiatrix), she was noted for hunting wild animals in the arena, an unusual spectacle for women in the games. Likely active in the 1^st century AD.
• Priscus and Verus: These two gladiators became legendary for their fight during the opening games of the Colosseum in AD 80. According to Martial’s account, their duel was so evenly matched that they both laid down their weapons in mutual respect. Emperor Titus awarded both men their freedom, a rare honour for gladiators.
• Spartacus: A Thracian gladiator who famously led a massive slave revolt, known as the Third Servile War (73–71 BC). Once a soldier, he was enslaved and trained as a gladiator in Capua. Spartacus and his followers defeated multiple Roman armies before being ultimately crushed by Marcus Licinius Crassus. His rebellion remains one of the most famous uprisings in Roman history.
• Spiculus: A favourite of Emperor Nero, Spiculus was a highly successful gladiator. Nero supposedly wanted Spiculus to kill him during his final moments, but this plan failed. Spiculus’s fame was enhanced by Nero’s patronage.
• Tetraites: A murmillo gladiator celebrated for his skill and victories. His name appears in graffiti in Pompeii, marking him as one of the most famous gladiators of his time. Likely active in the 1^st century AD.

Appendix 3: Different Types of Gladiators

This detailed list summarises each gladiator type, incorporating historical context, their roles, and their distinctive equipment and fighting styles.^[12]

• Andabata: Gladiators who fought blindfolded or with helmets that had no eye openings. Their combat was unpredictable and dangerous, but adding an element of spectacle and entertainment for the audience. Cicero humorously referenced them as akin to chariot fighters (essedarii). Their rarity and questionable practicality suggest they were more of a novelty act than a standard gladiator class.
• Arbelas: Mentioned in the Oneirocritica of Artemidorus, the arbelas carried a weapon resembling a cobbler’s semicircular knife, used to slash or slice opponents. This type is not widely documented and may have been symbolic or tied to specific regional games.
• Bestiarius: Specialists in combat with wild animals (venationes), bestiarii were often armed with minimal armoured protection and weapons like spears or whips. Unlike traditional gladiators, they lacked heavy armour and relied on agility, cunning and strategy to survive. Some bestiarii were prisoners or condemned criminals, while others were volunteers.
• Bustuarius: Tomb fighters originally associated with funeral rites (munera). The name derives from bustum (tomb), reflecting their origins in honouring the dead. Over time, this evolved into more elaborate public spectacles. The term carried negative connotations, even among gladiators, and was used insultingly in Roman rhetoric.
• Catervarii: Gladiators who fought in groups rather than traditional pairs, engaging in collective battles.
• Cestus Fighters: Gladiators who used cestuses—leather straps studded with metal, similar in shape to boxing gloves or knuckledusters. They participated in brutal hand-to-hand combat, with no armour to protect their bodies. The cestus fighters highlighted raw strength and brutality.
• Crupellarius: Heavily armoured gladiators encased in iron plating, limiting their mobility but providing maximum protection. Tacitus described them during the Aeduian revolt (AD 21), suggesting they may have originated in Gaul. Their cumbersome armour made them vulnerable to fatigue and well-coordinated opponents.
• Dimachaerus: Gladiators who wielded a sword in each hand. This fighting style required exceptional ambidexterity, speed, and balance. Dimachaeri exemplified the diversity of techniques showcased in the arena, offering a dynamic and thrilling spectacle.
• Eques (Equites): Gladiators who began combat on horseback, equipped with a spear and a small round cavalry shield (parma equestris). They later dismounted to fight on foot using a gladius. They typically wore scale armour, greaves, and helmets with decorative feathers. Equites fought only other equites, ensuring evenly matched bouts.
• Essedarius: Chariot-fighting gladiators inspired by Celtic warfare, particularly from Britain. They likely entered the arena on chariots, either dismounting to fight on foot or engaging while riding. Their appearance brought a sense of foreign exoticism to the games.
• Gallus: Early gladiators styled after Gaulish warriors, armed with traditional Gaulish weapons and armour. They were heavyweights, heavily armoured, and likely fought in a manner evocative of Gaulish combat. The Gallus was later replaced or transformed into the murmillo as Gaul was incorporated into the Roman Empire.
• Gladiatrix: Female gladiators, exceptionally rare and poorly documented. Gladiatrices participated in spectacle combat, often as a novelty. Emperor Septimius Severus banned female gladiators in 200 AD, viewing them as inappropriate for Roman decorum.
• Hoplomachus: Gladiators inspired by Greek hoplites, wearing greaves, arm guards (manica), and a brimmed helmet adorned with feathers. They carried a small round shield and a spear, which was thrown before switching to a gladius for close combat. They were typically paired against murmillos or Thracians.
• Laquearius: A variation of the retiarius, the laquearius used a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net to entangle opponents. This unique weapon required precision and skill, making their bouts intriguing and unconventional.
• Meridiani: Gladiators who fought during the midday, often lightly armed, providing entertainment after the more prominent morning events.
• Murmillo (Murmillones): Heavily armed gladiators with a large rectangular shield (scutum) and short sword (gladius). Their helmets featured a fish-shaped crest, symbolising their association with water. Murmillones often fought Thracians or hoplomachi, creating a balance between strength and agility.
• Parmularius: Gladiators who carried a small shield (parmula), compensating for their reduced protection with greater agility. They were often equipped with two greaves and specialised in quick, precise strikes.
• Provocator: Gladiators equipped with a rectangular shield, breastplate (cardiophylax), and gladius. Their armour mirrored military equipment, symbolising traditional Roman martial values. They fought only other provocatores in evenly matched contests.
• Retiarius: Lightly armoured gladiators armed with a trident, weighted net, and dagger, resembling fishermen. Their lack of armour made them reliant on speed and strategy. They often fought secutores in dramatic and tactical duels.
• Rudiarius: Freed gladiators who continued to fight, train, or referee in the arena. Having earned their wooden sword (rudis), they were highly regarded for their skill and experience.
• Sagittarius: Archers who fought in the arena, providing ranged combat. While rare, their inclusion added variety to the spectacles.
• Samnites: Early class of heavily armed gladiators named after the Samnite people, equipped with a large shield (scutum), short sword (gladius), and a plumed helmet.
• Scissor (Scissores): Gladiators armed with a weapon resembling open scissors or a semicircular blade attached to an arm guard. This unique weapon was designed for cutting or stabbing, making their fights visually distinctive.
• Scutarius: Gladiators who used a large shield (scutum), including murmillos and secutores. Their heavy shields provided significant protection.
• Secutores: Gladiators designed to counter the retiarius. They wore smooth, rounded helmets with small eye holes to prevent entanglement in nets and carried a gladius and tall rectangular shield.
• Thraeces (Thracians): Gladiators armed with a curved sword (sica) and a small rectangular shield.
• Thraex (Thracians): Gladiators armed with a curved sword (sica), small shield (parmula), and a griffin-crested helmet. They were agile fighters, known for their agility and offensive tactics and were often pitted against murmillos or hoplomachi.

Picture: Ornate Roman gladiator helmet with relief including an eagle and Priapus found in the gladiator barracks in Pompeii 1st century AD
Attribution: Mary Harrsch, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0&gt;, via Wikimedia Commons
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.

• Velites: Lightly armed gladiators who engaged in skirmish-style combat, inspired by Roman skirmishers. They were armed with spears, swords, and small round shields.
• Venatores: Hunters who participated in staged hunts (venationes), demonstrating their skill in tracking and killing wild animals.

Appendix 4: Miscellany

Animal Slaughter
During the Colosseum’s Inauguration Games, held in 80 AD under Emperor Titus, ancient sources report significant numbers of animals killed:

• Cassius Dio mentions the slaughter of over 9,000 animals during the games.^[13]
• Pliny the Elder, a Roman author and naturalist, also referenced this practice, though he condemned it as a barbaric superstition.

The lavish nature of these spectacles continued under later emperors, such as Trajan (98–117 AD). He was remembered as one of Rome’s greatest emperors, and was celebrated for his military conquests, public works, and the empire’s greatest territorial expansion. The games celebrating his victory over the Dacians reportedly lasted 123 days and resulted in the deaths of approximately 11,000 animals, making them among the most extravagant in Roman history.

Gladiator Blood as a Medicinal Remedy
Aulus Cornelius Celsus, a Roman encyclopaedist, noted in his work De Medicina^[14] that some individuals attempted to cure epilepsy by drinking the warm blood of a freshly slain gladiator^[15].

Wagering and Gambling
Wagering was an integral part of the spectacle in Roman amphitheatres, particularly during gladiatorial games and animal hunts (venationes). Here are some details about wagering in the context of ancient Rome:

Wagering on Gladiators

• Spectator Betting: Spectators frequently bet on the outcomes of gladiatorial contests. Popular gladiators often attracted heavy betting, with odds reflecting their skill, past performance, and popularity. Wagers were placed on various aspects, such as which gladiator would win, whether a specific fighter would survive, or how long a match might last.
• Organised Gambling: Some organisers or even lanistae (gladiatorial trainers) facilitated betting among spectators. This informal gambling often created a lively and competitive atmosphere.
• Private Betting: Wealthy spectators, including senators and equestrians, sometimes engaged in high-stakes betting among themselves, using gladiatorial combat as a backdrop for social and political posturing.

Wagering on Animal Hunts

• In venationes, wagers were also placed on outcomes involving wild animals. For instance, spectators might bet on whether a certain animal would survive or on how quickly a trained fighter could kill a beast.
• Exotic animals often had unique odds depending on their rarity, strength and perceived ferocity.

Cultural Context of Wagering

• Morality and Perception: While gambling was widespread and socially accepted in amphitheatres, it was sometimes criticised by moralists and philosophers for promoting vice and greed.
• A Tool of Propaganda: Some emperors used public games and betting opportunities to curry favour with the masses, distracting them from political issues.

Evidence of Wagering

• Graffiti and Inscriptions: Archaeological finds, including graffiti in Pompeii, mention betting on gladiators and reflect the excitement around these events.
• Literary Sources: Roman authors like Juvenal and Martial make references to betting during games, sometimes mocking the excesses of gamblers.

Picture: Depiction of ancient Roman dice players
Citation: Toys and games in ancient Rome. (2024, November 23). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome
Attribution: unknown 1st century Roman artist(s), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Both archaeological and literary evidence support the prevalence of gambling in Roman culture. Key examples include:

Archaeological Evidence

• Public Spaces: Archaeologists have uncovered numerous gaming boards and dice in public areas such as the Forum Romanum and the Basilica Julia in Rome. These artefacts suggest that gambling, including betting on games, was a common (and popular) pastime.
• Military Sites: Gaming tables have also been found near military sites, indicating that soldiers engaged in gambling, possibly betting on various outcomes, including those of gladiatorial contests.
• Graffiti in Pompeii: Graffiti in Pompeii mentioning gladiators and betting, highlights the widespread popularity of wagering on these contests.

Literary Evidence

• The 4^th century historian Ammianus Marcellinus commented on the pervasive nature of gambling in Rome, noting that it was a widespread vice across all social classes. While he criticised the obsession with gambling, his observations indicate its prevalence in Roman society.
• The poets Horace and Juvenal critiqued Roman society’s indulgence in gambling. Horace lamented the youth’s preference for dice games over more virtuous pursuits, while Juvenal condemned the squandering of wealth on bets. Their writings reflect societal concerns over the moral implications of gambling, including betting on games.

Gambling Regulations

• Despite its popularity, gambling was subject to legal restrictions in Rome. Laws like the lex Talaria^[16] prohibited certain forms of gambling, though enforcement was lax (and perhaps difficult to enforce).

Social Perception

• Gambling was often associated with the lower classes but remained widespread, with even emperors like Augustus and Claudius known to indulge. Despite criticisms, it became a central aspect of Roman entertainment culture, crossing social boundaries.

Together, the evidence^[17] demonstrates that wagering on gladiatorial games was a cornerstone of Roman entertainment culture, uniting spectators across social classes and persisting in popularity despite moral and legal criticisms.

Appendix 5: The Disposal of Corpses

In ancient Rome, the disposal of corpses from the games, including gladiatorial combats and public executions, was a matter of practicality given the sheer volume of casualties. The process reflected Roman attitudes toward death, hygiene, and the status of the deceased. Here’s how it was typically managed, with a note on Roman Britain for comparison:

Ancient Rome
The corpses of those who died in the arena—whether gladiators, condemned criminals, or wild animals—were usually treated with little ceremony unless the individual had significant social status.

Gladiators

• Burial by Guilds or Families: Gladiators were often members of collegia (funerary guilds). These guilds would ensure proper burial rites for their members if they died in combat.
• Family Responsibility: If a gladiator had family or sponsors, they might claim the body for burial, especially if the gladiator was a free citizen or of higher status.

Criminals and Prisoners

• Dumped in Mass Graves: Executed criminals or prisoners killed in spectacles were typically disposed of in mass graves or pits. They were not given individual burials or rites, reflecting their status as non-persons in Roman society.
• Tiber River Disposal: In some cases, corpses were thrown into the Tiber River, particularly if the bodies were not claimed and no land was allocated for burial.

Wild Animals

• Rendering or Disposal: Animal carcasses might be repurposed for food (if appropriate), rendered for materials like hides, or simply discarded, depending on the size and species.

Sanitation

The Romans were acutely aware of the need to prevent disease and odours. Corpses were removed quickly from the arena by slaves or attendants, often during the event. Dedicated spaces outside the city, such as the puticuli (large burial pits), were used for unclaimed bodies.

Roman Britain
In Roman Britain, while the scale of the games was much smaller, some practices mirrored those in Rome, though local variations might have occurred due to cultural and logistical differences.

Gladiators

• Burial Evidence: Archaeological discoveries in Britain, such as the York gladiator cemetery, show that some gladiators were given formal burials. This suggests that even in the provinces, guilds or families took responsibility for their dead.
• Cultural Influence: Native British customs and Roman practices may have combined, particularly in burial rites, reflecting the hybrid culture of Roman Britain.

Criminals and Others

• Mass Graves: Like in Rome, executed criminals and other victims were likely disposed of in mass graves or left unceremoniously in designated areas. Evidence is scarce but aligns with Roman practice elsewhere.

Sanitation

• Smaller-Scale Events: The logistics of corpse disposal in Roman Britain would have been less complex than in Rome, as the arenas were smaller, and the frequency of games was lower. Corpses were likely removed quickly and buried outside settlement boundaries.

Differences Between Rome and Roman Britain

• Scale: The games in Roman Britain were much less frequent and smaller in scale, meaning fewer corpses to manage.
• Local Practices: Roman Britain integrated local burial traditions into Roman practices, potentially leading to more burials with rites for certain individuals.
• Archaeological Evidence: Sites like the York gladiator cemetery suggest a higher likelihood of respectful burials in Britain, especially for gladiators, compared to the often utilitarian practices in Rome.

In both Rome and Roman Britain, the treatment of corpses largely depended on the status of the deceased. Gladiators often received more respect in death due to their roles and popularity, while criminals and prisoners were disposed of with little ceremony. The practicalities of sanitation and logistics influenced all corpse disposal practices, ensuring quick removal and minimisation of health risks. In Roman Britain, the influence of local customs and the smaller scale of games introduced subtle variations in these practices.

Sources and Further Reading

• http://www.discoverchester.co.uk/amphitheatre.html
• http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/colosseum/colosseum-glossary-of-terms.htm
• https://aqiva.co.uk/history-of-the-amphitheatre/
• https://archaeology.co.uk/articles/opinion/amphitheatres.htm
• https://archive.archaeology.org/gladiators/arena.html
• https://archive.archaeology.org/gladiators/glossary.html
• https://cms.historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-roman-amphitheatres-theatres-circuses/heag227-roman-amphitheatres-theatres-and-circuses/
• https://colosseumrometickets.com/gladiator-terms/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isca_Augusta
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_gladiator_types
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre
• https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/32521/
• https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-roman-amphitheatres-theatres-circuses/heag227-roman-amphitheatres-theatres-and-circuses/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/seating-in-the-arena-and-society/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/the-spread-of-the-munera-outside-rome/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/development-and-design-of-arenas/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/development-of-the-munera/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/origins-of-gladiatorial-munera/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/part/section-1-gladiators/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/front-matter/essential-facts-about-roman-society/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/costs-of-munera-and-other-spectacles/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/getting-and-training-gladiators/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/marketing-and-advertising/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/types-of-gladiators/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/female-gladiators-and-venatores/
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/
• https://romanobritain.org/5-glossary/glo_glossary_a.php
• https://ruralhistoria.com/2023/09/07/roman-amphitheatres/
• https://www.britainallover.com/2010/12/caerleon-amphitheatre/
• https://www.cotswolds.org/attractions/roman/19/
• https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-13081823/Britains-Roman-amphitheatres-incredible-map.html
• https://www.discoveringbritain.org/activities/south-west-england/aerial/britain-from-the-air-roman-amphitheatre.html
• https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/inspire-me/a-brief-history-of-roman-amphitheatres-in-britain/
• https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/cirencester-amphitheatre/
• https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/richborough-roman-fort-and-amphitheatre/history-and-stories/history/
• https://www.heritagedaily.com/2016/11/8-roman-ampitheatres-in-britain/101973
• https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/Londons-Roman-Amphitheatre/
• https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Gladiators-Amphitheatres-Roman-Britain/
• https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/RomanGladiators01.htm
• https://www.historyhit.com/locations/chester-roman-amphitheatre/
• https://www.londonmuseum.org.uk/collections/london-stories/roman-amphitheatre-central-london/
• https://www.romanamphitheatre.co.uk/
• https://www.romanamphitheatre.co.uk/the-list-2024
• https://www.romanamphitheatre.co.uk/what-for-and-why
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/charterhouse-amphitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/corinium-dobunnorum-cirencester-amphitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/dorchester-durnovaria-ampitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/londons-roman-amphitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/moridunum-carmarthen-amphitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/st-albans-verulamium-theatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/tomen-y-mur-arena-or-amphitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/trimontium-newstead-amphitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/venta-silurum-caerwent-amphitheatre/
• https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/place-type/amphitheatre/
• https://www.romecitytour.it/blog/who-were-the-most-famous-gladiators/
• https://www.theheritageportal.co.za/article/exploring-cirencesters-roman-amphitheatre
• https://www.theheritageportal.co.za/article/exploring-cirencesters-roman-amphitheatre
• https://www.visitcheshire.com/things-to-do/roman-amphitheatre-chester-p22631

Selection of YouTube Videos

• https://youtu.be/FQnAKqJc7L0
• https://youtu.be/wiEWMTQrxX8
• https://youtu.be/1oiuvpT1tBE
• https://youtu.be/93yf8t-lKGI
• https://youtu.be/O3oaEATAjco
• https://youtu.be/fbhuqovrrak
• https://youtu.be/SsFpz1zzDn4

Selection of Books

• A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity, by Paul Christesen and Donald G. Kyle, published by Wiley-Blackwell, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Companion-Spectacle-Antiquity-Blackwell-Companions/dp/1444339524/
• A Companion to the Roman Empire, by David Stone Potter, published by Wiley-Blackwell, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Companion-Roman-Empire-Blackwell-Companions/dp/0631226443/
• Ancient Hellenistic and Roman amphitheatres, stadiums, and theatres: the way they look now, by Raymond G. Chase, published by the University Press of New England, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Ancient-Hellenistic-Amphitheatres-Stadiums-Theatres/dp/1931807086/
• Blood in the Arena: The Spectacle of Roman Power, by Alison Futrell, published by the University of Texas Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Blood-Arena-Spectacle-Roman-Power/dp/029272523X/
• Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games, by Roland Auguet, published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Cruelty-Civilization-Roman-Roland-Auguet/dp/041510453X/
• Death in Ancient Rome, by Catharine Edwards, published by Yale University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Death-Ancient-Rome-Catharine-Edwards/dp/0300217277/
• Emperors and Gladiators, by Thomas Wiedemann, published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Emperors-Gladiators-Thomas-Wiedemann/dp/0415121647/
• Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome, by Eckart Köhne and Cornelia Ewigleben, published by British Museum Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Gladiators-Caesars-Power-Spectacle-Ancient/dp/0714123161/
• Gladiators at the Guildhall: The Story of London’s Roman Amphitheatre and Medieval Guildhall, by Nick Bateman, published by Museum of London Archaeology Service, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Gladiators-Guildhall-Londons-Amphitheatre-Medieval/dp/1901992195/
• Gladiators at Pompeii, by Luciana Jacobelli, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Gladiators-Pompeii-Luciana-Jacobelli-2004-02-19/dp/B01FGN8TVM/
• Gladiators, by Michael Grant, published by Penguin Books, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Gladiators-Penguin-history-Michael-Grant/dp/0140299343/
• Gladiators: 100 BC – AD 200, by Stephen Wisdom and Angus McBride, published by Osprey Publishing, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Gladiators-100-BC-AD-200-Warrior/dp/1841762997/
• Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic, by Henrik Mouritsen, published by Cambridge University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Plebs-Politics-Late-Roman-Republic/dp/0521791006
• Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire, by Warwick Ball, published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Rome-East-Transformation-Warwick-Ball/dp/0415717779/
• Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, by Donald G. Kyle, published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Spectacles-Death-Ancient-Approaching-World/dp/0415248426/
• Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World, by Donald G. Kyle, published by Wiley-Blackwell, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Sport-Spectacle-Ancient-World-Cultures/dp/0631229701/
• Textbook on Roman Law, by Andrew J. Borkowski, J. Andrew and Paul J. du Plessis, published by Oxford University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Borkowskis-Textbook-Roman-Paul-Plessis-dp-0198848013/dp/0198848013/
• The Colosseum, by Keith Hopkins and Mary Beard, published by Profile Books, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Colosseum-Keith-Hopkins-Mary-Beard/dp/1846684706/
• The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic, by Fergus Millar, published by the University of Michigan Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Republic-Thomas-Spencer-Jerome-Lectures/dp/0472108921/
• The Lure of the Arena: Social Psychology and the Crowd at the Roman Games, by Garrett G. Fagan, published by Cambridge University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Lure-Arena-Social-Psychology-Crowd/dp/0521185963/
• The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum, by Katherine E. Welch, published by Cambridge University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Roman-Amphitheatre-Colosseum-Katherine-2009-02-02/dp/B01K2OQHZK/
• The Roman Games, by Alison Futrell, published by Blackwell Publishing, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Roman-Games-Historical-Translation-Sourcebooks/dp/B00CB5S9RI/
• The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster, by Carlin A. Barton, published by Princeton University Press, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Sorrows-Ancient-Romans-Gladiator-Monster/dp/0691010919/
• The Story of the Roman Amphitheatre, by David Bomgardner, published by Routledge, available from https://www.amazon.co.uk/Story-Roman-Amphitheatre-David-Bomgardner/dp/0367625113/

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End Notes and Explanations

1. Source: Compiled from my research using information available at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com. Text used includes that on Wikipedia websites is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using those websites, I have agreed to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organisation. ↑
2. Explanation: The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, stands as a monumental testament to ancient Rome’s architectural prowess and cultural significance. Constructed between 70 and 80 AD under Emperors Vespasian and Titus, this elliptical structure measures approximately 189 metres in length and 156 metres in width, accommodating up to 50,000 spectators.Its grand facade features three tiers of arches, exemplifying classical Roman design. In its heday, the Colosseum hosted diverse public spectacles, including gladiatorial contests, animal hunts, and mock naval battles, serving as a central hub for entertainment and a symbol of imperial power. Today, it remains a powerful emblem of Rome’s enduring legacy, attracting millions of visitors worldwide.Sources: Encyclopaedia Britannica, GradesFixer, Italy Chronicles and Wikipedia ↑
3. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres ↑
4. Source: https://www.heritagedaily.com/2016/11/8-roman-ampitheatres-in-britain/101973 ↑
5. Source: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tham/hd_tham.htm ↑
6. Source: https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook/chapter/seating-in-the-arena-and-society/ ↑
7. Source: https://www.thecollector.com/roman-theatre-amphitheatre-in-ancient-rome/ ↑
8. Explanation: The Circus Maximus, Latin for “greatest circus,” was ancient Rome’s premier venue for chariot racing and mass entertainment. Situated between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it measured approximately 621 metres in length and 118 metres in width, accommodating over 150,000 spectators – three times as many as were usually accommodated at the Colosseum. Its elongated, U-shaped design featured a central barrier, the spina, adorned with statues and obelisks, around which chariots raced in thrilling competitions. Beyond chariot races, the Circus Maximus hosted various public spectacles, including religious ceremonies, processions, and gladiatorial combats, reflecting the intertwined nature of entertainment, politics, and religion in Roman society. Today, the site serves as a public park, preserving the legacy of one of history’s most iconic arenas. Sources: Wikipedia, Encyclopaedia Britannica, World History Encyclopedia and Rome ↑
9. Commentary: In ancient Rome, spectators at events like those in the Colosseum or Circus Maximus relied on various methods to keep track of time, as personal timekeeping devices were not available. Public sundials (solaria) were installed in prominent locations, allowing citizens to observe the progression of the day based on the sun’s position. Additionally, water clocks (clepsydrae) were used, especially on cloudy days or indoors, to measure time intervals. Event organizers might have used these devices to announce the commencement of games or specific events, ensuring that the audience was aware of the schedule. Furthermore, the structure of the day was commonly understood, with divisions such as the first hour (hora prima) starting at sunrise, the third hour (hora tertia) mid-morning, and so forth. This societal familiarity with time divisions helped spectators anticipate the timing of events during the games. In summary, through public timekeeping instruments and a shared understanding of daily time divisions, Roman spectators were able to follow event schedules during public games. Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_timekeeping and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock ↑
10. Further Information: See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiatrix ↑
11. Sources: Various, including ChatGPT, https://romanobritain.org/5-glossary/glo_glossary_a.php, https://colosseumrometickets.com/gladiator-terms/, http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/colosseum/colosseum-glossary-of-terms.htm and others (see list of all sources) ↑
12. Sources: Mainly from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_gladiator_types. See also: https://www.worldhistory.org/image/18163/common-types-of-gladiators-in-ancient-rome/, https://www.historyanswers.co.uk/ancient/what-were-the-different-types-of-gladiator/, https://theromanguy.com/italy-travel-blog/rome/colosseum/who-fought-in-the-colosseum/, and https://www.romecitytour.it/blog/who-were-the-most-famous-gladiators/ ↑
13. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inaugural_games_of_the_Colosseum ↑
14. Explanation: De Medicina is believed to be the only surviving section of a much larger encyclopaedia. The De Medicina is a primary source on diet, pharmacy, surgery and related fields, and it is one of the best sources concerning medical knowledge in the Roman world. The lost portions of his encyclopaedia likely included volumes on agriculture, law, rhetoric, and military arts. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus ↑
15. Sources: https://popular-archaeology.com/article/behind-the-spectacle-2 and https://mindhacks.com/2010/02/01/gladiators-blood-as-a-cure-for-epilepsy/ ↑
16. Explanation: The lex Talaria was a Roman law that prohibited certain forms of gambling, particularly games of chance involving dice (alea). Likely enacted during the late Republican or early Imperial period (1^st century BC to 1^st century AD), it aimed to curb excessive gambling, which was viewed as a moral and social vice. Enforcement of the law was inconsistent, and while violators could face fines, gambling persisted widely, especially at public events like gladiatorial games and chariot races. Exceptions were made during festivals such as Saturnalia, when gambling was temporarily permitted. The lex Talaria reflects broader Roman attempts to regulate gambling, although such measures often struggled to suppress practices that were deeply embedded in Roman entertainment and social life. ↑
17. Sources:
    • Gaming Boards and Dice in Public Spaces and Military Sites: https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/roman-society/entertainment-in-ancient-rome/gambling-of-ancient-romans/
    • Graffiti in Pompeii Depicting Betting and Gladiators: https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/38858/chapter/337908694
    • Ammianus Marcellinus on Gambling’s Pervasiveness: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome
    • Critiques by Horace and Juvenal: Ibid
    • Roman Laws Like Lex Talaria & Festival Exceptions: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome
    • Pompeii Stick Drawings Indicating Gladiatorial Spectatorship: https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/pompeii-stick-drawings-show-children-watched-gladiator-death-fights-c57khqhnj

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