The Martin Pollins Blog

History, economics, business, politics…and Sussex

Martin Pollins

, ,
No comments on The Life and Times of Alexander the Great

The Life and Times of Alexander the Great

Map Description automatically generated

Introduction[1]

Alexander the Great, the King of Macedon[2], conquered a vast empire that crumbled after his death. Despite being short-lived, his conquests shaped culture, trade, and politics across Asia and the Mediterranean for centuries. Such was his prowess that he never lost a battle.

Alexander is one of the most fascinating figures in ancient history. This paper provides a comprehensive commentary on his life, including the highs, lows, and everything in between. To start, here is a quick overview:

  • Early Life: Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia[3]. He was the son of King Philip II of Macedon and his fourth wife, Olympias. Alexander was educated by Aristotle, one of the most famous philosophers of his time, and was trained in warfare and politics from a young age.
  • The Rise to Power: After his father’s assassination in 336 BC, Alexander became king at the age of 20. He immediately set out to conquer the Persian Empire, which was the greatest power in the world at the time. In 334 BC, he led an army of 35,000 soldiers across the Hellespont (now known as the Dardanelles) and began his campaign in Asia.
  • Military Conquests: Alexander’s military campaigns were incredibly successful. He defeated the Persians in several major battles, including the Battles of Issus in 333 BC and Gaugamela in 331 BC. He also conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria, which became one of the most important centres of learning and culture in the ancient world.
  • Personal Life: Alexander was known for his close relationship with his friend and companion, Hephaestion. Some historians have speculated that they were lovers, although this is debated (see comments later). Alexander also married several women, including Roxana, whom he married shortly before his death.
  • Death: Alexander’s conquests came to an abrupt end when he died in Babylon in 323 BC at the age of 32. The cause of his death is not entirely clear. After his death, his empire was divided among his generals, and his legacy continued to shape the world for centuries afterwards.

Alexander the Great’s legacy is complex and controversial. On the one hand, he is celebrated as a military genius and a cultural icon. He is also credited with spreading Greek culture and ideas throughout the world. On the other hand, some say his conquests were brutal and caused immense suffering for the people who were conquered. Some historians also criticise his leadership style, which was often autocratic and ruthless.


Alexander portrayal by Lysippos
Attribution: Alexander the Great by Lysippos, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander-lysippus1-1.jpg

Overall, Alexander the Great is a complex figure who has left a lasting impact on the world.

Life and Legacy
Born in 356 BC in Pella, Macedon, an ancient city located in present-day Greece, Alexander was famously taught by Aristotle throughout his childhood. According to a 2021 paper published in Advances in Social Science, his father, Phillip II, hired the famous tutor when Alexander was 13 to teach ethics, politics and debate. “It was during such period that Alexander obtained significant theoretical foundation of his later conquest of the world,” writes the study’s author.[4]

Here are additional facts about his life and legacy:

  • Alexander the Great’s empire stretched from Greece to India, making it one of the largest empires in history.
  • He is known for founding several cities, including Alexandria in Egypt, which became an important centre of learning and culture.
  • Alexander is also famous for his use of the phalanx[5] formation, which was a military tactic that allowed for greater coordination and control over infantry soldiers.
  • Some historians believe that Alexander suffered from alcoholism and other health problems, which may have contributed to his early death at the age of 32.
  • After Alexander’s death, his empire was divided among his generals, who fought among themselves for control of different territories.
  • Alexander’s legacy continued to shape the world for centuries after his death, particularly in the areas of culture, art, and philosophy.
  • Many famous historical figures, including Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte, admired Alexander the Great and saw him as a model for their own leadership and military style and conquests.
  • Alexander was a masterful strategist and tactician who often surprised his enemies with unconventional and bold tactics. For example, he famously used a feint at the Battle of Issus to outmanoeuvre a much larger Persian army.
  • In addition to his military conquests, Alexander was also interested in science and philosophy. He is said to have carried a copy of Homer’s Iliad with him on his campaigns, and he founded a library in Alexandria that became one of the largest and most important repositories of knowledge in the ancient world.
  • Alexander was known for his personal courage and physical prowess. He was wounded several times in battle, including at the Battles of the Granicus in 334 BC and Hydaspes in 326 BC. He also tamed the famously wild horse Bucephalus as a teenager.
  • Alexander’s reign marked a turning point in the history of the ancient world, as it brought together the Greek and Persian civilisations and helped to spread Greek culture and ideas throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East.
  • Despite his many military successes, Alexander’s reign was not without its challenges and setbacks. He faced several rebellions from his own soldiers, and his attempts to integrate his Greek and Persian subjects led to tensions and conflicts within his empire.
  • Alexander’s legacy continues to inspire and intrigue people to this day. His life has been the subject of countless books, films, and works of art, and his conquests and achievements continue to be studied by historians and military strategists around the world.

His Name
According to ancient sources, Alexander’s mother, Olympias, named him after the ancient Greek hero Achilles.[6] Olympias was said to be a devout follower of the mystery cult of Dionysus, and she may have chosen the name Alexander (which means “defender of men” in Greek) to reflect her religious beliefs.

Another theory is that Alexander’s father, King Philip II of Macedon, named him after his own father, Amyntas III, who had a brother named Alexander. In Macedonian tradition, it was common to call sons after the names of grandfathers or uncles.

Regardless of the origins of his name, The legacy of Alexander the Great is not tied solely to the city of Alexandria but to his many achievements and conquests throughout his life.

undefined
Alexander the Great Visits Diogenes at Corinth by W. Matthews (1914)
Attribution: W. Matthews, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_visits_Diogenes_at_Corinth_by_W._Matthews_(1914).jpg

Upon Meeting Diogenes
Alexander the Great is said to have met Diogenes the Cynic (aka Diogenes of Sinope or Diogenes the Cynic), a famous philosopher, during his campaign in Corinth. According to the story, Alexander approached Diogenes, who was known for living a simple and ascetic lifestyle, and asked if there was anything he could do for him. Diogenes famously replied, “Yes, stand out of my sunlight.” Alexander was reportedly impressed by Diogenes’ response and remarked that if he were not Alexander, he would like to be Diogenes. This encounter has become a famous example of the clash between the ideals of power and fame represented by Alexander, and the simple, independent life advocated by Diogenes.

The meeting of Diogenes and Alexander the Great is one of the most discussed anecdotes from philosophical history. Many versions of it exist. The most popular relate it as evidence of Diogenes’ disregard for authority, wealth, and decorum.[7]

Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius report that Alexander and Diogenes died on the same day, in 323 BC.[8] Although this coincidence is suspect (since neither man’s date of death can be conclusively verified), the anecdote and the relationship between the two people has been the subject of many literary and artistic works over the centuries, from the writings of Diogenes Laërtius to David Pinski‘s 1930 dramatic reconstruction of the encounter.

The Opis Mutiny
The Opis Mutiny (also known as the Opis Revolt) was a rebellion in the summer of 324 BC, led by soldiers of Alexander the Great’s army. The mutiny occurred near Opis, a city on the east bank of the Tigris River in modern-day Iraq. The mutiny was triggered by Alexander’s decision to dismiss several senior officers and promote Persians to key positions in his army. Many of the Macedonian soldiers felt that this was a betrayal of their loyalty to Alexander, and they began to agitate for better treatment and greater rewards for their service.

The mutiny peaked when Alexander called a meeting of his troops to address their concerns. During the meeting, the soldiers began to chant for the dismissal of Alexander’s Persian officers and demanded that he return to the Macedonian way of life. Alexander responded by hurling his spear at the feet of the mutinous soldiers and threatening to disband the entire army and send the men home without any rewards.

The threat was enough to quell the rebellion, and Alexander was able to reassert his control over the army. He ordered the execution of the ringleaders of the mutiny and had the rest of the soldiers swear an oath of loyalty to him. The Opis Mutiny was a turning point in Alexander’s career, as it marked the first time that his soldiers had openly challenged his authority. It also highlighted the growing tension between Alexander and his Macedonian soldiers, who were becoming increasingly disillusioned with the king’s adoption of Persian customs and practices.

Despite this setback, Alexander was able to maintain the loyalty of his troops and continue his conquests. He went on to defeat the Indian king Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes and to conquer large parts of the Persian Empire before his death in 323 BC. According to ‘The Anabasis’ by Roman historian Arrian, Alexander made a powerful speech, berating his troops for their disloyalty[9].

To provide additional context to the Opis Mutiny, it is important to note that Alexander’s decision to promote Persians to key positions in his army was part of his larger policy of incorporating Persian culture and customs into his empire. This was a controversial move among his Macedonian soldiers, who saw it as a betrayal of their loyalty to Alexander and their Greek identity. The mutiny at Opis was not the first time Alexander had faced resistance from his soldiers over this issue, but it was perhaps the most serious and widespread. It is also worth noting that the execution of the mutiny ringleaders was not an uncommon practice in the ancient world, where military discipline was often maintained through harsh measures. However, Alexander’s decision to have his soldiers swear an oath of loyalty to him was a more unusual move, and it may have been an attempt to rebuild trust and unity within his army after the rebellion.

Alexander’s Speech [10]

“The speech which I am about to deliver will not be for the purpose of checking your start homeward, for, so far as I am concerned, you may depart wherever you wish; but because I wish you to know what kind of men you were originally and how you have been transformed since you came into our service.

“In the first place, as is reasonable, I shall begin my speech from my father Philip. For he found you vagabonds and destitute of means, most of you clad in hides, feeding a few sheep up the mountain sides, for the protection of which you had to fight with small success against Illyrians, Triballians, and the border Thracians.

“Instead of the hides, he gave you cloaks to wear, and from the mountains he led you down into the plains, and made you capable of fighting the neighbouring barbarians, so that you were no longer compelled to preserve yourselves by trusting rather to the inaccessible strongholds than to your own valour. He made you colonists of cities, which he adorned with useful laws and customs; and from being slaves and subjects, he made you rulers over those very barbarians by whom you yourselves, as well as your property, were previously liable to be plundered and ravaged.

“He also added the greater part of Thrace to Macedonia, and by seizing the most conveniently situated places on the sea-coast, he spread abundance over the land from commerce, and made the working of the mines a secure employment. He made you rulers over the Thessalians, of whom you had formerly been in mortal fear; and by humbling the nation of the Phocians, he rendered the avenue into Greece broad and easy for you, instead of being narrow and difficult.

“The Athenians and Thebans, who were always lying in wait to attack Macedonia, he humbled to such a degree – I also then rendering him my personal aid in the campaign – that instead of paying tribute to the former and being vassals to the latter, those States in their turn procure security to themselves by our assistance.

“He penetrated into the Peloponnese, and after regulating its affairs, was publicly declared commander-in-chief of all the rest of Greece in the expedition against the Persians, adding this glory not more to himself than to the commonwealth of the Macedonians. These were the advantages which accrued to you from my father Philip; great indeed if looked at by themselves, but small if compared with those you have obtained from me.

“For though I inherited from my father only a few gold and silver goblets, and there were not even sixty talents in the treasury, and though I found myself charged with a debt of 5OO talents owing by Philip, and I was obliged myself to borrow 800 talents in addition to these, I started from the country which could not decently support you, and forthwith laid open to you the passage of the Hellespont, though at that time the Persians held the sovereignty of the sea.

“Having overpowered the viceroys of Darius with my cavalry, I added to your empire the whole of Ionia, the whole of Aeolis, both Phrygias and Lydia, and I took Miletus by siege. All the other places I gained by voluntary surrender, and I granted you the privilege of appropriating the wealth found in them.

“The riches of Egypt and Cyrene, which I acquired without fighting a battle, have come to you. Coele-Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia are your property. Babylon, Bactra, and Susa are yours. The wealth of the Lydians, the treasures of the Persians, and the riches of the Indians are yours; and so is the External Sea.

“You are viceroys, you are generals, you are captains. What then have I reserved to myself after all these labours, except this purple robe and this diadem?

“I have appropriated nothing myself, nor can anyone point out my treasures, except these possessions of yours or the things which I am guarding on your behalf.

“Individually, however, I have no motive to guard them, since I feed on the same fare as you do, and I take only the same amount of sleep. Nay, I do not think that my fare is as good as that of those among you who live luxuriously; and I know that I often sit up at night to watch for you, that you may be able to sleep.”

Background
In September 331 BC, Alexander’s army defeated Darius III of Persia (336–330 BC) at the Battle of Gaugamela and probably took possession of Opis at about the same time as Babylon. A few years later, Alexander was forced by another mutiny at the Hyphasis River (now Beas) to return from the long campaign in India, and his European troops revolted again at Opis. To craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, he took an oath of unity before 9,000 Persian and Greek soldiers at Opis. Similarly, he had married Stateira (the daughter of Darius) and celebrated a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other Eastern noblewomen at Susa just before coming to Opis.[11] See below for information about the Hyphasis mutiny.

Where was Opis?
Opis was an ancient Babylonian city near the Tigris, not far from modern Baghdad. Akkadian and Greek texts indicate it was located on the east side of the Tigris, near the Diyala River.[12] The precise site of the city has been uncertain for a long time, though at one point thought to be near or under the city of Seleucia.[13] Recent geographical surveys of ancient Mesopotamia tentatively identify Opis with the mound called Tall al-Mujailāt (or Tulūl al-Mujaili`), 20 miles (32 km) southeast in a straight line from central Baghdad and 47 miles (76 km) northeast in a straight line from ancient Babylon.[14]

Significance of the Mutiny at Opis
The Opis Mutiny was a turning point in Alexander’s career, as it marked the first time that his soldiers had openly challenged his authority. It also highlighted the growing tension between Alexander and his Macedonian soldiers, who were becoming increasingly disillusioned with the king’s adoption of Persian customs and practices.

The Hyphasis Mutiny
Hyphasis and Hydaspes are both rivers located in the Indian subcontinent. Hyphasis is now known as the Beas River, while Hydaspes is now known as the Jhelum River. The main difference between the two rivers is their location and the historical significance they hold:

  • The Hyphasis/Beas River is located in northern India and was a site of a battle between Alexander the Great and Indian king Porus in 326 BC. This battle was one of the toughest that Alexander fought during his conquest of India, although it resulted in a victory for Alexander’s army.
  • On the other hand, the Hydaspes/Jhelum River is located further east and was also a site of a battle between Alexander and King Porus. This battle occurred in 326 BC, shortly after the Battle of Hyphasis/Beas. Alexander’s army was again victorious, but the battle was significant because it marked the easternmost extent of Alexander’s conquests.

Although both rivers played a role in Alexander’s campaigns in India and are often mentioned in historical accounts, the Hyphasis/Beas River is associated with the earlier battle and the Hydaspes/Jhelum River with the later battle marking the limit of Alexander’s conquests in the east.

The Hydaspes is well-known for the Battle of the Hydaspes, where Alexander the Great defeated King Porus of the Paurava kingdom in 326 BC. In contrast, the Hyphasis mutiny is less well-known in history and did not play a significant role in any major battles or events, except for the mutiny itself (see below).

The Hyphasis Mutiny
The Hyphasis Mutiny was a conflict between Alexander the Great and his army following their victory at the river Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander voiced plans for further conquests in the Indian subcontinent, but when his men reached the river Hyphasis, there was an open revolt. The mutiny ended with Alexander giving in to his men’s wishes and turning back; he did not venture further into the Indian subcontinent as he intended. Over the years, historians have examined the importance of this moment of tension between a king and his army.


Map of the ancient Near East in 540 BC
Attribution: ChrisO, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_near_east_540_bc.svg

Hephaestion
Hephaestion (son of Amyntor) was an ancient Macedonian nobleman and a general in the army of Alexander the Great. He was considered “by far the dearest of all the king’s friends; he had been brought up with Alexander and shared all his secrets.”[15]  This relationship lasted throughout their lives and was compared, by others and themselves, to that of Achilles and Patroclus.

Hephaestion’s military career was distinguished.  A member of Alexander the Great’s personal bodyguard, he went on to command the Companion cavalry and was entrusted with many other tasks throughout Alexander’s ten-year campaign in Asia, including diplomatic missions, the bridging of major rivers, sieges and the foundation of new settlements. Besides being a soldier, engineer and diplomat, he corresponded with the philosophers Aristotle and Xenocrates and actively supported Alexander in his attempts to integrate the Greeks and Persians. Alexander formally made him his second-in-command when he appointed him Chiliarch of the empire. Alexander also made him part of the royal family when he gave him as his bride Drypetis, sister to his own second wife Stateira, both daughters of Darius III of Persia.

The close relationship between Alexander the Great and Hephaestion gave rise to the idea that it had romantic or sexual undertones. There is no conclusive evidence to suggest that Alexander the Great was exclusively or primarily attracted to people of the same sex, but some historical accounts indicate he may have had romantic or sexual relationships with men, as well as women. It is important to note that in ancient Greek culture, attitudes toward same-sex relationships were quite different than today, and many prominent figures, including philosophers and military leaders, were known to have had same-sex relationships or experiences. These relationships were often viewed as a normal and accepted aspect of life. Ultimately, the question of Alexander’s sexual orientation may never be definitively answered, and it is important to approach the topic with an understanding of the historical context in which he lived.

Battles, Adversaries, Outcomes and Dates


A painting by Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Porus (Puru) during the Battle of the Hydaspes.
Attribution: Charles Le Brun, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Brun,_Alexander_and_Porus.jpg

The major battles fought by Alexander the Great, along with their adversaries, outcomes and dates, were:

  • Battle of the Granicus (334 BC) – fought against the Persian Empire: Alexander’s victory.
  • Siege of Miletus (334 BC) – fought against the Persian Empire: Alexander’s victory.
  • Siege of Halicarnassus (334-333 BC) – fought against the Persian Empire: Alexander’s victory.
  • Battle of Issus (333 BC) – fought against the Persian Empire: Alexander’s victory.
  • Siege of Tyre (332 BC) – fought against the city-state of Tyre: Alexander’s victory.
  • Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC) – fought against the Persian Empire: Alexander’s victory.
  • Battle of the Persian Gates (330 BC) – fought against the Persian Empire: Alexander’s victory.
  • Battle of the Hydaspes (326 BC) – fought against the Indian king Porus: Alexander’s victory.
  • Battle of the Acesines (326 BC) – fought against the Indian king Porus: Alexander’s victory.
  • Battle of Gabiene (325 BC) – fought against the Persian Empire: Alexander’s victory.
  • Battle of the Hellespont (324 BC) – fought against rebellious Greek city-states: Alexander’s victory.

There were also numerous smaller battles, skirmishes, and sieges that occurred throughout Alexander’s campaigns, but these are the major battles that are most often discussed in historical accounts. It’s worth noting that while Alexander was victorious in many of these battles, he also suffered losses and setbacks along the way, particularly in the later stages of his campaigns.

Before his death, Alexander made plans for a Hellenic military and mercantile expansion into the Arabian Peninsula, after which he planned to turn his armies to Carthage, Rome, and the Iberian Peninsula in the west. However, the Diadochi (his political rivals) abandoned these plans after he died; instead, within a few years of Alexander’s death, the Diadochi began a series of military campaigns against each other and divided the territories of the Macedonian Empire among themselves,[16] triggering more than 40 years of warfare during the Hellenistic period.

The Gordian Knot
The Cutting of the Gordian Knot is an Ancient Greek legend associated with Alexander the Great in Gordium in Phrygia, who, in 333 BC when challenged to unloose the complex Knot of great local fame, instead of exercising genius in untangling it laboriously as expected, dramatically cut through it with his sword, thus exercising another form of mental genius, of a highly practical and determined nature.


Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot (1767) by Jean-Simon Berthélemy
Attribution: Jean-Simon Berthélemy, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_cuts_the_Gordian_Knot.jpg

It is thus used as a metaphor for a seemingly intractable problem solved by exercising an unexpectedly direct, novel, rule-bending, decisive and simple approach to the problem that removes the perceived constraints.

The symbolic use of the expression did not escape the great English Bard’s attention, who wrote:
Turn him to any cause of policy,
The Gordian Knot of it he will unloose,
Familiar as his garter
— Shakespeare, Henry V, Act 1 Scene 1. 45–47

Alexander’s Children
Alexander the Great had a son, Alexander IV, who was born after his death. There were also several other children who are said to have been fathered by Alexander, but their identities and fates are barely documented.

Alexander IV was born to Alexander’s wife, Roxana, several months after his death. Alexander IV became the nominal king of Macedon and co-ruler of Alexander’s empire along with several of Alexander’s generals, but he did not achieve anything notable himself due to his young age and the constant power struggles and conflicts that surrounded him.

Eventually, Cassander, one of Alexander’s former generals, took control of Macedon and had Alexander IV and Roxana killed to consolidate his power. So, unfortunately, none of Alexander the Great’s children achieved anything notable themselves, and their fates were largely determined by the political and military turmoil that followed their father’s death.

Surprising and not so well-known Facts
Here are several surprising and not well-known facts about Alexander the Great:

  • Alexander the Great had heterochromia, meaning his two eyes were different colours. One was blue, and the other was brown.
  • Alexander was tutored by Aristotle when he was a teenager, and he had a great interest in philosophy and intellectual pursuits throughout his life.
  • Alexander was only 20 years old when he became the king of Macedon after his father, King Philip II, was assassinated.
  • Despite his reputation as a great conqueror, Alexander was a skilled diplomat and often used peaceful means to secure alliances with other nations.
  • Alexander the Great was known for his love of wine and often drank excessively. He once drank a cup of unmixed wine that was so strong it caused him to collapse and become ill for several days.
  • Alexander was known for his love of animals and often took his favourite horse, Bucephalus, on his military campaigns.
  • Alexander was very superstitious and consulted oracles and diviners before making important decisions.
  • Alexander was often depicted in art wearing a lion-skin headdress, which was a symbol of his claim to be descended from the Greek hero Heracles.
  • Alexander the Great is said to have founded more than 70 cities during his conquests, many of which were named after him. One of the most famous is Alexandria in Egypt, founded in 331 BC, which became a major centre of learning and culture in the ancient world. Other cities he founded include Kandahar in Afghanistan and Bucephala in modern-day Pakistan.

Attribution: A Primary Source of Information on Alexander the Great
Arrian of Nicomedia (c. 86/89 – after 146/160 AD) was a Greek historian, public official, military commander, and philosopher of the Roman period. His full name was Lucius Flavius Arrianus, and he is often regarded as one of the primary sources on the life of Alexander the Great and the campaigns of the Macedonian army. Arrian’s works are crucial for our understanding of the Hellenistic world and the early Roman Empire.

Life and Career
Arrian was born in Nicomedia (present-day İzmit, Turkey), the capital city of the Roman province of Bithynia. He rose to prominence in Roman society, achieving Roman citizenship and holding several significant posts, including serving as the consul of Rome under Emperor Hadrian and later as the governor of Cappadocia, where he distinguished himself by his military campaigns against the Alans[17].

Works
Arrian was a prolific writer, though not all his works have survived. His most famous works include:

  • Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander): Often simply called The Anabasis, this work is considered the most reliable account of Alexander the Great’s conquests. It was written in the second century AD, based on earlier sources, including the works of Ptolemy and Aristobulus, which are no longer extant. Arrian aimed to present a factual and unbiased account of Alexander’s campaigns from his ascent to the throne to his death. It includes the most detailed account recorded of the four major battles in which Alexander defeated first the armies of Darius and then their formidable Indian King Porus.[18]
  • Indica: A work that describes India and the voyage of Nearchus from India to the Persian Gulf. It serves as a companion piece to the Anabasis, providing valuable insights into the regions east of the Persian Empire, including the Indian subcontinent, and the nature and customs of its peoples.
  • Enchiridion (The Manual) and Discourses of Epictetus: Arrian was a student of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus and took it upon himself to record the teachings of his mentor. The Enchiridion is a short manual of Epictetus’s philosophical teachings, and the Discourses are more detailed lectures. Through these works, Arrian helped preserve the core ideas of Stoicism for future generations.
  • Tactica: A treatise on military tactics, specifically focusing on the cavalry. It reflects Arrian’s interest in and knowledge of military affairs, likely informed by his experiences as a governor and commander.
  • Periplus of the Euxine Sea: This work describes a voyage around the Black Sea, offering insights into the geography, peoples, and navigation of the region during the Roman era.

Legacy
Arrian’s works, especially the Anabasis of Alexander, have been invaluable for historians studying Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic period. His detailed accounts provide a clear window into the tactics, strategies, and daily life of the ancient Macedonian military, as well as Alexander’s leadership style and ambitions. Through his philosophical writings, Arrian has also contributed significantly to our understanding of Stoicism as a way of life and thought in the Roman world. His legacy endures as a historian who bridged the worlds of Greece and Rome, offering future generations a detailed record of one of history’s most remarkable figures and periods.

The End of Alexander
At age 32, Alexander fell ill and died after 12 days of excruciating abdominal pain and suffering from unbearable fever. Alexander the Great died on 10th June 323 BC in Babylon. Since then, historians have debated the cause of his untimely death, proposing everything from typhoid or malaria[19] and alcohol poisoning to assassination by one of his rivals[20]. Another theory suggests that Alexander may have suffered from the neurological disorder Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)[21].

On his deathbed, Alexander gathered his generals and told them, “I will depart from this world soon; I have three wishes, please carry them out without fail”. The ailing king implored his generals to abide by his wishes, saying:

  • “My physicians alone must carry my coffin.”
  • “I desire that when my coffin is transported to the grave, the path leading to the graveyard shall display the wealth I collected,” the king said.
  • “My third and last wish is that both my hands hang out of my coffin.”


Alexander Mosaic (detail), House of the Faun, Pompeii
Attribution: Berthold Werner, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Page URL: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_and_Bucephalus_-_Battle_of_Issus_mosaic_-_Museo_Archeologico_Nazionale_-_Naples_BW.jpg
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

His generals alleged that his last words were “to the strongest,” meaning that his empire would go to the general who could defeat the others in battle. His potential successors, known as the Diadochi[22], split up the military and waged a war that lasted 50 years.[23]

In the late 4th or early 3rd century BC, Alexander’s body was transferred from the Memphis tomb to Alexandria for reburial (by Ptolemy Philadelphus in c. 280 BC, according to Pausanias). Later, Ptolemy Philopator placed Alexander’s body in Alexandria’s communal mausoleum. The tomb of Alexander the Great is attested in several historical accounts, but its current exact location remains an enduring mystery. Following Alexander’s death in Babylon, his body was initially buried in Memphis by one of his generals, Ptolemy I Soter, before being transferred to Alexandria, where it was reburied. Julius Caesar, Cleopatra and Augustus, among others, are noted as having visited Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria in antiquity. Its later fate is unknown, and it had possibly been destroyed by the 4th or 5th centuries – since the 19th century, over one hundred official attempts have been made to try to identify the site of Alexander’s tomb in Alexandria.[24]

The End of Alexander’s Empire[25]
After the death of Alexander the Great in June 323 BC, his vast empire, which stretched from Greece in the west to India in the east, did not pass to a single successor. Instead, it became the subject of intense and prolonged conflicts among his generals and administrators, known as the Diadochi (Successors). These conflicts, aimed at dividing Alexander’s empire, are collectively referred to as the Wars of the Diadochi, spanning from Alexander’s death in June 323 BC to the Battle of Corupedium[26] in 281 BC. This period marked the transition from the unified empire Alexander had created to a series of Hellenistic kingdoms that would dominate the ancient Near East for the next few centuries.

Initial Partition – Partition of Babylon (323 BC)
Immediately after Alexander’s death, his generals met at Babylon to divide the empire’s administration, but not yet intending to dismember it fully. Perdiccas was appointed as the regent for Alexander’s half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus and his posthumously born son Alexander IV. However, this arrangement was unstable due to the ambitions of the individual generals and the lack of a clear successor.

The First War of the Diadochi (322-320 BC)
Disputes quickly escalated into open warfare. The First War of the Diadochi was primarily between Perdiccas, who sought to maintain his regency over the entire empire, and other generals who opposed his power. Perdiccas’s failure in Egypt and subsequent assassination marked the end of the first round of conflicts.

The Partition of Triparadisus (321 BC)
After Perdiccas’s death, a new partition occurred at Triparadisus in Syria. The empire was re-divided among the surviving generals, with Antipater becoming the new regent. This partition did not end the conflicts but rather set the stage for further wars as the Diadochi continued to jostle for control.

The Second and Third Wars of the Diadochi (319-311 BC)
Following Antipater’s death in 319 BC, the empire was plunged into further conflict. The Second War saw the rise of Antigonus the One-Eyed, who aimed to establish control over the entire empire. The Third War involved a coalition against Antigonus and his son Demetrius, culminating in the inconclusive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, which nevertheless resulted in the division of the empire into multiple Hellenistic kingdoms.

The Formation of Hellenistic Kingdoms
By the end of the Wars of the Diadochi, Alexander’s empire was divided into several major Hellenistic kingdoms:

  • The Antigonid Kingdom in Macedon and Greece ruled by the descendants of Antigonus the One-Eyed.
  • The Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt founded by Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander’s most trusted generals.
  • The Seleucid Empire, covering much of Alexander’s Asian territories, established by Seleucus I Nicator.
  • The Attalid dynasty in Pergamon (not directly a result of the Diadochi conflicts but became significant later).

The End of the Diadochi Period
The formal end of the Diadochi conflicts is often marked by the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC, the last battle of the Diadochi, where Seleucus I defeated Lysimachus, the ruler of Thrace and Asia Minor. However, Seleucus was assassinated later that year, which underscored the ongoing instability and power struggles among Alexander’s successors.

The End of the Ending
The forty years following Alexander the Great’s death were characterised by relentless warfare, shifting alliances, and the eventual fragmentation of his empire. The legacy of these conflicts was the establishment of Hellenistic kingdoms that maintained and spread Greek culture throughout the ancient Near East, profoundly influencing the development of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions for centuries to come.


Image: Encapsulating the scene following the death of Alexander the Great, focusing on the carve-up of his empire among his generals to illustrate the intense discussions and negotiations that marked the beginning of the Wars of the Diadochi and the eventual formation of Hellenistic kingdoms.
Drawn by DALL-E, a subset of ChatGPT, February 2004

Editorial Notes

Alexander’s Visit to Corinth and Meeting Diogenes
Alexander visited Corinth shortly after becoming king of Macedon in 336 BC. The visit was part of a broader effort by Alexander to secure his position and authority over the Greek city-states following his father Philip II’s death. Alexander sought to ensure the loyalty of the Greeks and to gather support for his planned campaign against the Persian Empire, which would require a unified Greek force under his leadership. The visit to Corinth was significant because it symbolised his acceptance and recognition by the Greek world as the leader of the Hellenic League, an alliance of Greek city-states formed initially by Philip II for the purpose of launching a campaign against Persia.

Corinth is located in southern Greece, strategically positioned on the narrow strip of land connecting the Peloponnese to the mainland, known as the Isthmus of Corinth. This location made it a key economic and military hub in ancient times, controlling the land routes between the Peloponnese and the rest of Greece, as well as having two nearby ports, Lechaeum in the Corinthian Gulf and Cenchreae in the Saronic Gulf. Its geographical position allowed it to thrive as a commercial centre and to exert considerable influence in the affairs of the ancient Greek world.

Whilst visiting Corinth, Alexander the Great met Diogenes the Cynic. The meeting between these two iconic figures is one of the most famous anecdotes from ancient history, illustrating the stark contrast between Alexander’s desire for conquest and Diogenes’ pursuit of a simple, self-sufficient life. According to the story, Alexander, intrigued by the philosopher’s reputation, sought out Diogenes while he was visiting Corinth. He found Diogenes sunbathing and, standing before him, offered to grant him any wish. Diogenes, who valued nothing Alexander could offer, famously replied, “Yes, stand out of my sunlight.” This response is often interpreted as a powerful statement on the value of personal freedom and contentment over material wealth or power.

This encounter highlights the philosophical divide between the two men: Alexander, representing the epitome of worldly success and ambition, and Diogenes, embodying the Cynic philosophy of living in virtue in agreement with nature, requiring few material possessions.

Sources of Information
Information about Alexander the Great comes from a variety of sources, but none of them are contemporary accounts written during his lifetime or immediately after he died in 323 BC. The primary sources that historians rely on for information about Alexander were written centuries after his death. These include:

  • Quintus Curtius Rufus: A Roman historian who wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns in the 1st century AD. His work, “Histories of Alexander the Great,” is one of the main Latin sources.
  • Diodorus Siculus of Sicily: A Greek historian who wrote the “Bibliotheca historica,” which includes a comprehensive history of the world up to his time in the 1st century BC. This work provides valuable insights into ancient civilisations, covering both mythological history and factual accounts of historical events across various cultures, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, and Rome, thus aiming to compile all human knowledge of his era into a universal library of historical narrative.
  • Plutarch: A Greek biographer and essayist who wrote “Parallel Lives” in the early 2nd century AD. His biography of Alexander compares him with the Roman general Julius Caesar and provides valuable insights into Alexander’s character and the events of his life.
  • Arrian: A Greek historian, public servant, and military commander who wrote “Anabasis Alexandri” (The Campaigns of Alexander) in the 2nd century AD. Arrian is often considered the most reliable of the ancient sources on Alexander’s campaigns because he claimed to base his account on the works of Ptolemy and Aristobulus, two of Alexander’s contemporaries, although their original writings have not survived.
  • Justin: A Roman historian who summarised the work of Pompeius Trogus, who wrote in the late 1st century BC. Justin’s “Epitome” of the “Philippic Histories” includes information about Alexander’s conquests.

These sources, written long after the events they describe, have been supplemented by other historical, archaeological, and philological research. Despite the time gap between Alexander’s life and these accounts, they provide a rich tapestry of information about his conquests, strategies, personality, and the impact he had on the world, though they must be critically evaluated for biases and inaccuracies.

The Hellenistic Era
The Hellenistic Era or Hellenistic Period (circa 323 BC to 31 BC) began with the death of Alexander the Great and ended with the rise of the Roman Empire. It was characterised by the spread of Greek culture across the territories Alexander had conquered in Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean.

The period saw significant advancements in art, science, and philosophy, influenced by the blending of Greek and Eastern cultures. Key cities like Alexandria in Egypt became centres of learning and culture. The era is marked by the division of Alexander’s empire among his generals, leading to the formation of several Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the Near East, and the Antigonid dynasty in Macedonia.

This expansion of Greek influence followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, who, by the time of his death in 323 BC, had created an empire that was unprecedented in size. However, Alexander’s empire did not survive long after his death, as it was divided among his generals, the Diadochi, leading to the establishment of several Hellenistic kingdoms.

Cultural Fusion
One of the most significant aspects of the Hellenistic Era was the fusion of Greek and local cultures in the territories that were conquered. This cultural synthesis led to remarkable developments in art, literature, and science. For example, in art, the period is characterized by an increase in realism and emotional expression, as seen in sculptures like the Dying Gaul and Laocoön and His Sons. Literature flourished with the works of poets such as Callimachus and Theocritus, who explored new themes and formats.

Scientific and Philosophical Advancements
The era was also a golden age for science and philosophy. In Alexandria, the establishment of the Library and the Museion (an institution dedicated to the Muses, the Greek goddesses of the arts and sciences) created a centre for learning that attracted scholars from across the known world. This period saw significant advancements in mathematics, astronomy, geography, and medicine. Figures such as Euclid, Archimedes, and Eratosthenes made groundbreaking contributions to their fields. In philosophy, schools like the Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics offered new ways of thinking about ethics, the universe, and human society.

Political Fragmentation and Military Conflicts
Politically, the Hellenistic world was fragmented and characterised by frequent wars between the successor kingdoms. These conflicts, while destabilising, also facilitated the movement of peoples, ideas, and goods across vast distances. The major Hellenistic kingdoms included the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in Asia, and the Antigonid dynasty in Macedonia, among others. Despite their rivalries, these kingdoms contributed to the Hellenistic culture’s richness and diversity.

End of the Hellenistic Era
The Hellenistic Era gradually came to an end as the Roman Republic expanded its influence. The decisive moment was the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Octavian (later Augustus) defeated the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, leading to the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt and the incorporation of the Hellenistic world into the Roman Empire, marking the transition from the Hellenistic to the Roman Imperial Era.

Legacy
The legacy of the Hellenistic Era is immense, influencing the Roman Empire and, through it, the Western world in countless ways. The era’s contributions to art, science, and philosophy continued to be felt long after its end, shaping the cultural and intellectual foundations of the modern world.

Dividing the Spoils
After Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BC, his vast empire was not passed to a single successor, as no clear heir had been designated. His only son, Alexander IV, was still an infant, and his half-brother, Philip III Arrhidaeus, was considered unfit to rule due to an intellectual disability. The result was a period of conflict and power struggles known as the Wars of the Diadochi (Successors).

Alexander’s generals, known as the Diadochi, jockeyed for control of different parts of his empire. This period of conflict lasted for several decades, resulting in four main successor states:

  • Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt: Founded by Ptolemy I Soter (see below), a general under Alexander the Great, who became satrap of Egypt after Alexander’s death and later declared himself king. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was characterised by a new capital at Alexandria and lasted until the Roman conquest in 30 BC.
  • Seleucid Empire: Established by Seleucus I Nicator (see below), who secured the largest portion of Alexander’s Asian territories, stretching from present-day Turkey to parts of India. The Seleucid Empire was known for its attempts to integrate Greek and Persian culture and lasted until it was gradually weakened by internal strife and external conflicts.
  • Antigonid Dynasty in Macedon and Greece: Antigonus I Monophthalmus (see below) and his descendants controlled Macedon and parts of Greece for several generations until the rise of the Romans in the region.
  • Kingdom of Pergamon: Not an original part of the division, but it emerged from the territories initially under the control of Lysimachus. Pergamon became a significant Hellenistic centre under the Attalid dynasty.
  • Other Territories: Smaller regions, such as those ruled by the Antipatrid and Aeacid dynasties, also existed for shorter periods as part of the fractured Hellenistic world left by Alexander.

The division of Alexander’s empire did not result in long-lasting stability, and the successor kingdoms often engaged in warfare with one another. These states eventually fell to or became client states of emerging powers, most notably the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, which absorbed much of their territories. The legacy of Alexander’s empire persisted, however, in the spread of Greek culture and language throughout the known world, an era known as the Hellenistic Age.

Ptolemy I Soter
(see my paper at https://martinpollins.com/2023/11/06/the-ptolemies-successors-to-alexander-the-great/)

Ptolemy I Soter was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great and the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, which lasted nearly 300 years, from his accession after Alexander’s death until the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC:

  • Early Life and Career with Alexander the Great: Ptolemy was born around 367 BC in Macedonia. Little is known about his early life, but he was a lifelong friend and trusted general of Alexander the Great, accompanying him on his conquests. Ptolemy was one of Alexander’s seven bodyguards and played a significant role in Alexander’s campaigns in Asia.
  • After Alexander’s Death: After Alexander died in 323 BC, Ptolemy took control of Egypt, becoming satrap (governor) and later styling himself as king, Ptolemy I Soter (“Saviour”). His self-proclaimed kingship marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in Egyptian history.
  • Foundation of the Ptolemaic Kingdom: Ptolemy established Alexandria as the capital of his new kingdom, which became a major centre of Hellenistic culture and learning, home to the famous Library of Alexandria and the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. His rule is characterised by the stabilisation of Egypt following the disruptions of Alexander’s campaigns and the establishment of a centralised, Hellenistic state.
  • Military and Political Manoeuvres: Ptolemy was involved in the early wars of the Diadochi, the conflicts among Alexander’s generals, and he secured Egypt against invasions from the other successors. He expanded his control into areas of the eastern Mediterranean, including Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya) and parts of Syria, but his attempts to hold onto territories outside of Egypt were often contested.
  • Legacy and Succession: Ptolemy I Soter was a patron of the arts and sciences, which thrived in Alexandria during his reign. He also wrote a history of Alexander’s campaigns, which has not survived but was used by later historians as a source. He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus, under whom the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued to prosper.
  • The Ptolemaic dynasty is perhaps most famous for its last ruler, Cleopatra VII, who played a significant role in the Roman political struggles of her time and whose life and reign marked the end of the Hellenistic period in Egypt. Ptolemy I’s policies and leadership established a long-lasting dynasty that integrated Egyptian and Hellenistic cultures, leaving a complex legacy that influenced the Mediterranean’s political and cultural landscapes for centuries.

Seleucus I Nicator
Seleucus I Nicator was one of Alexander the Great’s generals and one of the most prominent successors (Diadochi) after Alexander’s death. He played a pivotal role in shaping the Hellenistic world by establishing the Seleucid Empire, which at its height spanned from the Aegean Sea to India:

  • Early Life and Service Under Alexander: Seleucus was born circa 358 BC, likely in Macedonia. He joined Alexander’s campaign as an infantry general and rose through the ranks due to his military skill and leadership abilities. He was appointed to the elite Companion cavalry and participated in significant battles during Alexander’s conquests.
  • After Alexander’s Death: When Alexander died in 323 BCE, Seleucus initially served as a commander under Perdiccas, who was regent for Alexander’s half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus and his posthumously born son Alexander IV. After the first partition of Alexander’s empire, Seleucus became the satrap of Babylon in 321 BC.
  • Foundation of the Seleucid Empire: Seleucus was forced to flee to Egypt in 316 BC after a fallout with Antigonus I Monophthalmus, but he returned with a force to reclaim Babylon in 312 BC, an event that marked the official founding of the Seleucid Empire. Over the following years, Seleucus expanded his territory through military campaigns and strategic alliances, eventually controlling a vast area that included much of the remnants of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.
  • Military and Political Achievements: Seleucus’ most notable military achievement was his victory at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, where he and his allies defeated Antigonus, significantly expanding his territory. He continued to engage in territorial disputes and wars with other Diadochi, including Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and eventually Chandragupta Maurya, the Indian emperor with whom he made a peace treaty, ceding some eastern territories (in what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan) in exchange for 500 war elephants.
  • Death and Legacy: Seleucus was assassinated in 281 BC by Ptolemy Keraunos, possibly during preparations for a campaign to take control of Macedonia and Thrace. His son, Antiochus I Soter, succeeded him, and the Seleucid dynasty continued until 63 BC, making it one of the last Hellenistic kingdoms to fall to Rome.
  • Cultural Contributions: Seleucus was instrumental in the spread of Hellenistic culture throughout Asia. He founded several cities, including Antioch (on the Orontes) and Seleucia (on the Tigris), which became major centres of commerce and Hellenism. The Seleucid Empire’s blend of Greek and Persian cultures had a lasting impact on the region, influencing the development of trade, art, and science. The empire’s eastern territories also had significant interactions with the Indian subcontinent, contributing to a cross-cultural exchange that would resonate through the subsequent centuries.

Antigonus I Monophthalmus
Antigonus I Monophthalmus, also known as Antigonus the One-Eyed (due to having lost an eye), was a prominent figure in the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s death. He was one of Alexander’s generals and satraps (governors) who became a key player in the wars of the Diadochi — the power struggles among Alexander’s former generals to control different parts of his empire:

  • Early Life and Career: Antigonus was born around 382 BC and became a trusted member of Alexander’s inner circle, serving both Philip II and Alexander the Great in various military and administrative capacities.
  • After Alexander’s Death: Antigonus was initially made governor of Phrygia, a region in modern-day Turkey. He soon became involved in the conflicts among Alexander’s successors. Antigonus proved to be a skilled and ambitious military leader and sought to control more territory.
  • Rise to Power: By 315 BC, Antigonus had control over much of Asia Minor and the Levant. His power and influence were so great that he attempted to reestablish the unity of Alexander’s empire under his own rule, leading to a coalition of other Diadochi against him. In the ensuing conflicts, known as the Wars of the Diadochi, Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes gained and lost territories in a series of campaigns against rivals like Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander.
  • Battle of Ipsus: His ambition led to the decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, where a coalition of his enemies, including Seleucus and Lysimachus, faced him. Antigonus was defeated and killed in this battle at the age of 81. The Battle of Ipsus resulted in the definitive fragmentation of Alexander’s empire; his territories were divided among the victors.
  • Legacy: Despite his defeat and death, Antigonus’ lineage continued through his son Demetrius and eventually established the Antigonid dynasty in Macedon, which would rule until the Roman conquest.

Antigonus’ role in the Wars of the Diadochi demonstrated the challenges of maintaining unity in the vast and diverse empire Alexander had created. His life and military career significantly influenced the Hellenistic period’s political landscape, characterised by both the spread of Greek culture and ongoing conflict among Alexander’s former territories. Antigonus I Monophthalmus is remembered as one of the most powerful of Alexander’s successors, whose actions helped shape the Hellenistic world in the years following Alexander’s death.

Sources and Further Reading

Books:

YouTube Videos:

Feature Films:

CAUTION: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Parts of this paper include information provided via artificial intelligence which, although checked by the author, is not always accurate or reliable. Neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements and you should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.

End Notes and Explanations

  1. Source: Compiled from my research and using information at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com ↑
  2. Explanation: Alexander III of Macedon is commonly known as Alexander the Great due to his extraordinary military achievements and the vast empire he built, which stretched from Greece to Egypt and into the northwest Indian subcontinent. He was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. The moniker “the Great” reflects his unparalleled success as a military commander and his impact on the history and culture of the regions he conquered. The legacy and historical significance of Alexander the Great far surpass those of his predecessors, which is why he is more prominently remembered and why his name stands out without the numeral designation. There were two previous ‘Alexanders’ in Macedon:

    Alexander I of Macedon, also known as Alexander I Philhellene (“friend of the Greeks”), reigned from 498 to 454 BC. He was a ruler who worked to position Macedon within the Greek world at a time when it was on the periphery. He is known for competently playing a complex diplomatic game between the leading powers of Greece, Persia, and other neighbouring states.

    Alexander II of Macedon was king from 370 to 368 BC. His reign was short, and he is less known than Alexander the Great. Alexander II was the son of Amyntas III, and his short reign was marked by struggle and internal conflict. After his death, his brother, Ptolemy Alorites, took the throne. ↑

  3. Explanation: Macedon and Macedonia essentially refer to the same historical region, but the terms can have different connotations depending on the context:

    Macedon typically refers to the ancient kingdom ruled by the Argead dynasty from around the mid-7th century BC until the establishment of Roman province after the Roman conquest in the 2nd century BC. It is the region where Alexander the Great was born and from where he launched his military campaign to create one of the largest empires of the ancient world.

    Macedonia is often used to describe the area in broader historical and geographical terms. In modern times, it can refer to a broader geographical region that includes the contemporary state of North Macedonia, as well as parts of Greece, Bulgaria, and Albania.

    While the terms are often used interchangeably when referring to the ancient kingdom, it’s important to be specific in contemporary discussions to avoid confusion with the modern geographic and political areas. ↑

  4. Source: https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/what-to-know-about-alexander-the-great-and-his-mysterious-death ↑
  5. Explanation: The phalanx was a rectangular mass military formation, typically composed of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar weapons. This formation was designed to present a solid front to the enemy, making it difficult for opposing soldiers to penetrate. The soldiers in a phalanx stood shoulder to shoulder in ranks, often several men deep, creating a wall of shields and projecting weapons that could advance towards the enemy in a disciplined and unified manner. The phalanx was primarily used by ancient Greek city-states and was perfected by the Macedonians under Philip II and his son, Alexander the Great. The Macedonian phalanx, for instance, was known for its use of the sarissa, a long pike, which gave them a significant reach advantage over their enemies. The formation required high levels of training and discipline, as the effectiveness of the phalanx depended on the unity and coordination of its members. In combat, the phalanx was highly effective in open terrain where it could maintain its cohesion and advance against enemy forces. However, it was less effective in rough terrain or against highly mobile enemies that could outflank or disrupt its formation. Over time, as military tactics evolved and more flexible formations were developed, the use of the phalanx declined. ↑
  6. Explanation: In historical texts, the connection between Alexander and the figure of Achilles is well documented, particularly in how Alexander admired Achilles and saw himself as his successor in heroism and glory. However, the exact ancient sources that might state Olympias named Alexander after Achilles or due to her devotion to the Dionysian mysteries would typically be found in the works of ancient historians such as Plutarch or Arrian, who wrote about Alexander’s life and the customs of the time. ↑
  7. Source: Liang Shiqiu (2007). “On Time”. In Joseph S. M. Lau; Howard Goldblatt (eds.). The Columbia anthology of modern Chinese literature. Modern Asian literature. translated by King-fai Tam (2nd ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 665 et seq. ISBN 978-0-231-13841-3. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_and_Alexander ↑
  8. Source: Plutarch, Moralia, 717c; Diogenes Laërtius vi. 79, citing Demetrius of Magnesia as his source. It is also reported by the Suda, Diogenes δ1143. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_and_Alexander ↑
  9. Source: https://greekcitytimes.com/2022/05/03/alexander-the-great-opis-mutiny/ ↑
  10. Information: The speech at Opi (called Depart!), has been translated by the Greek historian Arrian. Source and acknowledgement: https://greekcitytimes.com/2022/05/03/alexander-the-great-opis-mutiny/ See also: https://www.livius.org/sources/content/arrian/anabasis/mutiny-at-opis/ ↑
  11. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opis ↑
  12. Sources: (1) Clark Hopkins, A Bird’s-eye View of Opis and Seleucia, Antiquity, vol. 13, iss. 52, pp. 440 – 448, December 1939, and (2) William Horsburgh Lane, Babylonian Problems, J. Murray, 1923. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opis ↑
  13. Source: R.H. Excavations in Iraq, The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art, vol. 17, no. 7, pp. 133-135, Jul 1930. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opis ↑
  14. Source: P. Högelmann and K. Buschmann, “Östlicher Mittelmeerraum. Das achämenidische Westreich von Kyros bis Xerxes (547–479/8 v. Chr.),” in Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, B IV 23, 1986. Parpola and Porter (2001) map 32, glossary p. 18; Talbert (2000) map 91 F4. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opis ↑
  15. Source: Quintus Curtius Rufus, 3. 12. 16. The History of Alexander. Explanation: Quintus Curtius Rufus was a Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, Historiae Alexandri Magni, “Histories of Alexander the Great“, or more fully Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri Qui Supersunt, “All the Books That Survive of the Histories of Alexander the Great of Macedon.” Much of it is missing. Apart from his name on the manuscripts, nothing else certain is known of him. This fact alone has led philologists to believe that he had another historical identity, to which, due to the accidents of time, the link has been broken. A few theories exist. They are treated with varying degrees of credibility by various authors. Meanwhile, the identity of Quintus Curtius Rufus, historian, is maintained separately. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus ↑
  16. Source: Strudwick, Helen (2013), p.97, The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. London: Amber Books. ISBN 978-1-4351-4654-9. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great ↑
  17. Explanation: The Alans were a nomadic pastoralist people of Iranian origin, part of the broader group of Sarmatian tribes, who played a significant role in the history of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus from the 1st century AD onwards. They are known for their mastery of horseback warfare, similar to other Iranian steppe tribes such as the Scythians and Sarmatians. The Alans originated in the Central Asian steppes, migrating westwards to the areas around the Don and Volga Rivers by the 1st century AD. Their culture was characterized by a nomadic lifestyle, with a strong emphasis on horse breeding and cavalry warfare. They were also skilled metalworkers, a trait common among steppe nomads. ↑
  18. Source: Arrian: Alexander the Great,The Anabasis and the Indica, available from: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Alexander-Anabasis-Indica-Oxford-Classics/dp/0199587248 ↑
  19. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15081504/ ↑
  20. Source: https://www.history.com/news/alexander-the-great-death-cause-discovery ↑
  21. Explanation: Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) happens when a person’s immune system harms their body’s nerves. This harm causes muscle weakness and sometimes paralysis. It mainly affects the feet, hands and limbs, causing problems such as numbness, weakness and pain. Today, it can be treated and most people will eventually make a full recovery, although it can occasionally be life-threatening and some people are left with long-term problems. Guillain-Barré syndrome affects people of all ages but it is more common in adults and males. Source: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/guillain-barre-syndrome/ ↑
  22. Explanation: The Diadochi were the rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great, who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC. The Diadochi Wars mark the Hellenistic period’s beginning from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River Valley. Cited at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochi ↑
  23. Source: http://boyumlaw.com/2017/09/27/alexander-great-last-will ↑
  24. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Alexander_the_Great ↑
  25. Recommended Reading: Dividing the Spoils, The War for Alexander the Great’s Kingdom, by Robin Waterfield, is available from: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Dividing-Spoils-Ancient-Warfare-Civilization/dp/0199647003/ ↑
  26. Explanation: The Battle of Corupedium, fought in 281 BC in Lydia, near present-day Soma in Turkey, marked the final conflict of the Wars of the Diadochi, which followed the death of Alexander the Great. This battle was between Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire, and Lysimachus, the ruler of Thrace and Asia Minor. Seleucus emerged victorious, effectively ending Lysimachus’s rule and ambitions, thereby consolidating his control over Asia Minor. However, Seleucus’s triumph was short-lived; he was assassinated later that year by Ptolemy Ceraunus. The Battle of Corupedium is significant as it marked the end of the tumultuous era of the Diadochi, leading to the establishment of the Hellenistic kingdoms. ↑

Posted by:

Martin Pollins

Martin Pollins is a Chartered Accountant and MBA with wide experience in corporate finance and business management. He has served on the boards of several companies, including those listed on the London Stock Exchange, AIM and OFEX. He is the Chairman and Founder of OneSmartPlace and was a Council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1988 to 1996. He was managing partner of PRB Martin Pollins, based in Sussex, the first Accountancy firm to advertise on British television. He went on to create and launch the CharterGroup Partnership (the UK’s first Accountancy network) and then LawGroup UK (at the time, one of the largest networks of lawyers in the UK). In recent years, he helped to raise several £millions to fund British films such as The Da Vinci Code, Bridge of San Luis Rey, Head in the Clouds and Merchant of Venice with actors such as Charlize Theron, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, F. Murray Abraham. Kathy Bates, Gabriel Byrne, Geraldine Chaplin, Tom Hanks, Ian McKellen, Audrey Tautou, Penélope Cruz, Steven Berkoff, Lynn Collins, Jeremy Irons, Joseph Fiennes and many more. He has written several business publications (see https://onesmartplace.com/resources/)

Leave a Reply

Discover more from The Martin Pollins Blog

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Continue reading