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Socrates the Philosopher

Introduction[1]

Socrates (470/469 – 399 BC) was a classical Greek philosopher credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy and the first moral philosopher of the ethical tradition of thought. Unlike his contemporaries, Socrates did not leave behind a body of written work. What we know of his teachings and methods comes primarily from the accounts of his students, notably Plato[2] and Xenophon[3], as well as the plays of Aristophanes[4], which provide a unique, albeit caricatured, perspective on Socratic philosophy.

Socrates is best known for his association with the Socratic method of question and answer, his claim that he was ignorant (or aware of his own absence of knowledge), and his claim that the unexamined life is not worth living, for human beings[5].

This paper provides a comprehensive review of Socrates, including his identity, beliefs, and alleged methodology. It encompasses both historical and philosophical dimensions. Additionally, it contemplates the challenges associated with gaining knowledge about an individual who never documented his thoughts directly. Our understanding of Socrates primarily derives from Plato, although he is also mentioned by other ancient authors and subsequent philosophers in the historical lineage. Recognising the difficulty of uncovering the authentic Socrates, I have tried to approximate him as closely as possible.


Image: Socrates, by lentina_x
“Socrates” by lentina_x is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.
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Exploring the Depth of Socratic Philosophy
In this exploration, I delve deep into the essence of Socrates’s philosophy, a cornerstone of Western thought, and its profound historical significance. Socrates, known for his unique approach to philosophy and his indelible impact on the intellectual landscape of ancient Greece, introduced the world to the Socratic method, a foundation of dialectical reasoning. His teachings, primarily documented by his students Plato and Xenophon, span ethical living, the pursuit of virtue, and the critical examination of knowledge. This paper aims to dissect the nuances of the Socratic method, investigate Socrates’s ethical doctrines, and trace his lasting influence on subsequent philosophical developments. By dissecting these facets of Socratic thought, we seek to provide a comprehensive understanding of his philosophical legacy and enduring relevance.

Life and Background[6]
Socrates was born in Athens, where he spent most of his life. He was the son of Sophroniscus, an Athenian stone mason and sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife. Socrates himself served as a hoplite (heavy infantryman) in several battles during the Peloponnesian War[7] between Athens and Sparta, demonstrating not only physical endurance but also significant bravery.

Socrates entered the world in 469 BC. His family’s financial status was modest; today, they might be described as being middle-class – they were neither impoverished nor affluent. Unlike Plato, Socrates did not come from a noble lineage. He was raised in the Athenian district of Alopece and, upon reaching the age of 18, began fulfilling the civic responsibilities expected of Athenian men, which included serving in the military and participating in the Assembly, the body tasked with making decisions on warfare and legislation.

In a society that prized male aesthetics, Socrates was unfortunately considered very unattractive, indeed often referred to as being ugly. Ancient texts consistently comment on his unusual looks; Plato and others describe his protruding eyes, flat nose, which gave him a porcine appearance, and his tendency towards a portly figure. Socrates did little to enhance his appearance, often seen wearing the same cloak and sandals day and night, though Plato’s Symposium (see below) hints at moments where he did pay attention to his looks.

Socrates received an education fitting his social standing, including lessons in literacy, as was common for Athenian men by the mid-5th century BC. His father also ensured he received a well-rounded cultural education in poetry, music, and sports. Both Plato and Xenophon depict Socrates as knowledgeable in poetry, musically skilled, and comfortable in athletic settings. Despite learning a trade from his father, Socrates chose instead to spend his time in the agora[8], engaging in dialogue with anyone willing to converse. Although not wealthy, he attracted a group of affluent young admirers, including Plato, who enjoyed his method of questioning Athens’ supposed wise and influential figures.

Socrates was married to Xanthippe and, by some accounts, had a second wife. It’s generally believed he married Xanthippe first, fathering a son, Lamprocles, with her. He supposedly married Myrto, producing two more sons, Sophroniscus and Menexenus, without a dowry.

The paternity of Sophroniscus is sometimes attributed to Xanthippe in different sources, and there are suggestions that Socrates was simultaneously married to both women due to a demographic imbalance in Athens. Socrates openly expressed his physical attraction to young men, though he prioritised their spiritual and moral improvement over his desires.

Socrates distinguished himself in the Athenian military, participating in several key battles like Potidaea, Delium, and Amphipolis, showing courage and strategic prowess, even saving the life of the renowned general Alcibiades. Despite his military service, many Athenians viewed him as a democratic threat, a perception that significantly influenced his eventual trial and conviction, highlighting the need to consider the broader historical context of his legal proceedings.

Secondary Sources
Recent scholarship, such as Gregory Vlastos’s work in “Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher,” offers a critical examination of Socratic irony and ethical philosophy, highlighting the complexity of Socratic thought and its misinterpretations by contemporaries. Catherine Zuckert’s “Plato’s Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues” takes a comprehensive look at Plato’s dialogues, arguing for a nuanced understanding of Socrates’s role in Platonic philosophy.

These and other secondary sources provide invaluable perspectives on Socrates, demonstrating the vibrant debate and ongoing reinterpretation of his ideas within contemporary scholarship.

Plato’s Symposium
Plato’s “Symposium” is a foundational text in Western philosophy and literature, celebrated for its exploration of love and beauty. Written in the early 4th century BC, this work is a departure from Plato’s more overtly philosophical dialogues, employing a dramatic and narrative form to delve into the nature of Eros (erotic love) and its role in the human experience. The “Symposium” is set against the backdrop of a banquet in Athens, where a group of distinguished guests, including Socrates, Aristophanes, Agathon, Alcibiades, and others, engage in a series of speeches praising Eros.

Structure and Content
The dialogue is framed by a conversation between Apollodorus and a friend, years after the actual symposium occurred. Apollodorus[9] recounts the events of that night to his friend, basing his account on what he heard from Aristodemus[10] who was present at the banquet. This framing device establishes a narrative distance, adding layers of interpretation and memory to the recounting of the speeches.

Each speaker at the banquet offers a different perspective on love, contributing to a multifaceted exploration of its nature:

  • Phaedrus posits that love is the greatest god and motivates people to act honorably and achieve greatness to win their beloved’s admiration.
  • Pausanias makes a distinction between Common Love, which is purely physical and devoid of intellect, and Heavenly Love, which transcends physical attraction and is aimed at the intellect and the soul.
  • Eryximachus, a physician, presents a scientific view, suggesting that love exists in all things, including the body and the universe, and is a force of harmony and balance.
  • Aristophanes offers a comedic and mythological account, suggesting humans were originally spherical beings, split in half by Zeus, and that love is the desire to find one’s other half and become whole again.
  • Agathon provides a poetic and idealized speech, praising love’s virtues and its effects on humans and gods.
  • Socrates recounts a conversation with Diotima, a wise woman who teaches him that love is not the love of beauty itself, but rather the love of reproduction and birth in beauty, leading to the immortal and the divine. Socrates distinguishes between the physical love for bodies and the more profound love of the soul for wisdom and truth, culminating in the Form of the Beautiful[11].

Themes and Interpretations
The “Symposium” is rich in themes and has been the subject of various interpretations. Central to the dialogue is the concept of love as a motivator for goodness, beauty, and truth. It explores love’s power to transcend physical attraction and reach towards the intellectual and the divine, suggesting a ladder of love that leads from physical desire to the contemplation of the Form of the Beautiful, the ultimate truth and beauty beyond the physical realm.

Influence and Legacy
Plato’s “Symposium” has had a profound impact on Western thought about love and beauty. It introduced the concept of Platonic love, a non-sexual form of love that transcends physical attraction and seeks higher, intellectual, and spiritual companionship. The dialogue’s exploration of different aspects of love, including its philosophical, ethical, and societal dimensions, continues to inspire discussions in philosophy, literature, and art.

Philosophical Contributions
Socrates’ contributions to philosophy were vast and influential. He is best known for the Socratic method (elenchus), a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to illuminate ideas. This method underpins much of Western logic and questioning.

Unlike the Sophists[12] (itinerant teachers who claimed they could teach virtue for a fee), Socrates believed that knowledge was a virtue and that it was the most important thing for the well-being of the soul. He famously claimed to know nothing except the fact of his own ignorance. This acknowledgment of one’s own ignorance is the first step in philosophy, as it opens the way to questioning and knowledge.

Ethical Teachings
Socrates’s philosophy also centred on ethics and the best way for people to live. He believed that the greatest good of man should involve the health of the soul, which could be achieved by intellectual and moral virtues. For Socrates, an unexamined life was not worth living, encouraging individuals to explore ethical concepts such as justice, virtue, and piety.

The Ethical Groundwork of Socratic Philosophy
Socrates’s ethical teachings, often juxtaposed against the prevailing norms of his time, offer a radical departure towards introspection and moral virtue. Contrary to the Sophists, who argued that morality was relative and could be manipulated for personal gain, Socrates argued for an objective standard of goodness rooted in the health of the soul. His assertion that “an unexamined life is not worth living” challenges individuals to live according to virtues that foster the soul’s well-being, such as justice, wisdom, and courage. This emphasis on internal virtue over external success laid the groundwork for subsequent ethical theories, notably influencing Plato’s idealism and Aristotle’s virtue ethics, and continues to inspire modern discussions on the essence of a good life.

Key Elements of Socratic Philosophy
Key elements of Socratic philosophy as depicted in the dialogues of Plato, highlight how Socrates’ approach to teaching and inquiry has shaped areas of philosophy, particularly epistemology (the theory of knowledge) and ethics (the philosophy of morality).

The Socratic Method (elenchus)

  • Definition: The Socratic method, or elenchus, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. It’s a method of hypothesis elimination, systematically refuting or proving the falsity of the interlocutors’ beliefs, thereby leading them to a better understanding or, often, the realization that they do not know what they thought they knew.
  • Process in Dialogues: In Plato’s dialogues, this method is depicted through a series of short questions and answers where Socrates and his conversation partners (interlocutors) explore various philosophical issues. These discussions frequently revolve around defining virtues such as justice, courage, or wisdom. Through these dialogues, Socrates demonstrates that, despite initial confidence in their knowledge, both he and his interlocutors often end up acknowledging their inability to define the virtue in question conclusively.

Socratic Irony

  • Definition: Socratic irony involves Socrates’ pretense of ignorance to entice others into a dialogue. He claimed to know nothing or professed ignorance about the subject at hand. This ironic stance served two purposes: it disarmed the interlocutors’ defenses and encouraged them to engage more openly in the dialogue, and it underscored the philosophical principle that recognizing one’s ignorance is the first step toward acquiring true knowledge.

Epistemology and Ethics in Socratic Philosophy

  • Epistemology: Socrates’ assertion of his own ignorance and his method of inquiry underscore a fundamental epistemological stance: that recognizing one’s own lack of knowledge is crucial to the pursuit of understanding. This approach is deeply connected to epistemology because it concerns the nature and scope of knowledge, including the questions of what knowledge is and how it is acquired.
  • Ethics: The discussions in Plato’s dialogues often revolve around ethical concepts and virtues, reflecting Socrates’ concern with how one should live. The method of questioning not only seeks to uncover the essence of virtues but also implies that ethical understanding is necessary for a good and just life.

The above text describes how Socrates, through Plato’s portrayal, emphasies the importance of questioning and dialogue in reaching philosophical understanding. The Socratic method encourages a critical examination of one’s beliefs, leading to a deeper insight into ethical and epistemological concepts. Socratic irony serves as a tool in this process, showcasing the value of acknowledging one’s ignorance as the starting point for true philosophising.

Examples from Plato’s Dialogues
Socratic Method in Action:

  • One vivid illustration of the Socratic method can be found in Plato’s “Euthyphro,” where Socrates engages Euthyphro in a dialogue about the nature of piety. Socrates’s relentless questioning leads Euthyphro to confront the contradictions in his own definitions of piety, demonstrating Socrates’s method of exposing assumed knowledge to reveal ignorance and stimulate deeper inquiry.
  • In “The Republic,” particularly in the early books, Socrates discusses the concept of justice with Thrasymachus, who asserts that justice is the advantage of the stronger. Through a series of methodical questions, Socrates dismantles this perspective, guiding Thrasymachus and the readers to contemplate the essence of justice beyond mere power dynamics.

The ‘Socratic Problem’
The Socratic problem refers to the challenge historians and scholars of philosophy face in trying to discern the historical Socrates’ true philosophical beliefs, teachings, and methods from the varied representations found in ancient texts. This problem arises because Socrates himself wrote nothing; our knowledge of his ideas and methods comes exclusively through the works of others, primarily his students Plato and Xenophon, and to a lesser extent through the comedic plays of Aristophanes.

Each of these sources offers a different portrayal of Socrates, influenced by the authors’ perspectives, intentions, and literary styles:

  • Plato: Perhaps the most influential source on Socrates, Plato presents his teacher in a range of dialogues that span his own philosophical development. Early dialogues are thought to closely represent Socrates’s actual views, while later works increasingly reflect Plato’s own philosophical ideas. Distinguishing between Socrates’s authentic voice and Plato’s philosophical innovations is a central aspect of the Socratic problem.
  • Xenophon: His works, such as the “Memorabilia,” provide a portrayal of Socrates that is often seen as more down-to-earth and less given to philosophical abstraction than Plato’s. Some scholars consider Xenophon a more reliable historical source due to his straightforward style, while others criticise him for lacking the depth of philosophical understanding attributed to Plato.
  • Aristophanes: The earliest of these sources, Aristophanes’s play “The Clouds,” presents a caricature of Socrates as a sophist and a charlatan, interested more in sophistry and the clouds than in ethical living. While clearly a comedic and exaggerated portrayal, it offers insights into how Socrates was viewed by some of his contemporaries.

The Socratic problem is compounded by the fact that these texts were written with different objectives in mind—not strictly as historical accounts. Plato’s dialogues, for instance, are philosophical exercises aimed at exploring complex ideas, where Socrates serves more as a literary device than a strictly historical figure. Xenophon’s works, while possibly more straightforward, might lack the philosophical depth and might be influenced by his own interpretations and biases.

Modern scholars approach the Socratic problem with a variety of methodologies, including comparative analysis of texts and historical context examination, to tease apart the authentic Socratic voice from those of his interpreters. The advent of computational linguistics and stylometry has offered new insights, allowing scholars to analyse the linguistic patterns in Platonic dialogues to distinguish between Socratic and Platonic ideas. This scholarly endeavour not only enriches an understanding of Socratic philosophy but also illuminates the dynamic interplay between teacher and student, showcasing the evolution of philosophical thought from Socrates to Plato and beyond.

Given these challenges, historians and philosophers attempt to reconstruct Socrates’s philosophy by critically comparing these sources, looking for overlaps and differences, and trying to identify the core ideas that can be reliably attributed to Socrates himself. This involves a careful and often speculative analysis that seeks to peel away the layers of interpretation and adaptation added by his students and contemporaries.

The Socratic problem thus highlights the difficulties inherent in trying to access the thoughts of a historical figure who left no direct records and is known only through the lens of others.

Friedrich Schleiermacher
It is worth mentioning Friedrich Schleiermacher’s pivotal role in the discussion of the Socratic problem. Schleiermacher (1768–1834), a German philosopher, theologian, and classicist, significantly influenced the way scholars approached the complexities of Socratic philosophy. His work in the early 19th century marked a turning point in the study of Socrates, emphasising the critical evaluation of sources that describe Socrates’ life and teachings.

Before Schleiermacher’s intervention, Xenophon’s depictions of Socrates were often given considerable weight by scholars seeking to understand the historical Socrates. This was due, in part, to Xenophon’s straightforward narrative style and his portrayal of Socrates as a morally upright and practical individual, which contrasted with the more complex and philosophically profound character found in Plato’s dialogues. Xenophon, being a historian and soldier, provided a seemingly more accessible and less abstract version of Socrates.

Schleiermacher challenged this prevailing approach by arguing that Xenophon, while a valuable historical source, lacked the philosophical insight to capture the depth and nuance of Socrates’ thought. According to Schleiermacher, Xenophon’s portrayal was too simplistic to account for Socrates’ significant impact on subsequent philosophical traditions. He contended that Xenophon’s Socrates was so devoid of philosophical rigor that it was difficult to reconcile this figure with the profound influence attributed to Socrates by his contemporaries and later philosophical schools.

Instead, Schleiermacher proposed that Plato’s dialogues offered a richer, more accurate portrait of Socrates, one that was philosophically sophisticated and reflective of the intellectual environment of Athens at the time. He suggested that through Plato, readers could engage with the philosophical complexities and the dialectical method that were central to Socrates’ approach to ethics, knowledge, and virtue.

Schleiermacher’s arguments reshaped the study of Socratic philosophy, encouraging scholars to prioritize Plato’s accounts when reconstructing Socrates’ ideas. This shift did not resolve the Socratic problem but added a critical layer to its analysis, emphasizing the interpretative challenges of distinguishing Socrates’ voice from Plato’s philosophical contributions. Schleiermacher’s work underscored the importance of critical engagement with primary sources and the complexities of historical reconstruction in the study of ancient philosophy.

Surviving Lessons
What has survived from antiquity regarding Socrates is largely through the works of his students and contemporaries, as Socrates himself left no written records. Here’s a summary of the primary sources and types of information that have preserved his legacy:

  • Plato’s Dialogues: Plato, one of Socrates’ most famous students, wrote a series of dialogues in which Socrates is the central character. These texts are considered the most important source of our knowledge about Socrates’ life, philosophy, and method of inquiry. However, it’s important to note that scholars debate the extent to which these dialogues accurately reflect the historical Socrates’ views versus Plato’s own philosophical agenda.
  • Xenophon’s Writings: Another student of Socrates, Xenophon, also wrote works featuring Socrates, including “Memorabilia,” “Oeconomicus,” and “Symposium.” Xenophon presents a somewhat different view of Socrates than Plato, focusing more on practical ethics than on metaphysical speculation. However, his works are generally considered less philosophically sophisticated and influential than Plato’s.
  • Aristophanes’ Play “The Clouds”: Aristophanes, a contemporary of Socrates, depicted him in his comedic play “The Clouds.” This portrayal is far from flattering, presenting Socrates as the head of a sophistical think-tank teaching young men how to make weak arguments appear stronger. While not a reliable source for Socrates’ philosophy, it offers insight into how Socrates was perceived by some of his contemporaries.
  • Later Philosophical Works: Later philosophers, especially those of the Hellenistic period, often referred back to Socrates in their own texts, either to build upon his ideas or to criticize them. These references further contribute to our understanding of his influence on the development of Western philosophy.
  • Historical Accounts: Some later historical accounts, including those by Diogenes Laërtius in his “Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers,” provide biographical details about Socrates, though these are often intermixed with legend and anecdote.

The Socratic Method, an approach to teaching and problem-solving characterised by asking a series of questions to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas, is perhaps the most enduring aspect of Socrates’ legacy. Despite the challenges in distinguishing Socrates’ authentic voice from those of his interpreters, his dedication to questioning accepted wisdom and his commitment to ethical living have made him a foundational figure in Western philosophy.

Trial as a Traitor
The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), a protracted conflict between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies, was marked by numerous pivotal events that influenced Athenian society’s perception of Socrates and contributed to his later trial as a traitor. These moments reflected broader societal tensions, shifts in democratic ideals, and the political instability of Athens, all of which colored the views of Socrates among his contemporaries.

  • The Sicilian Expedition (415-413 BC): One of the most significant disasters for Athens during the Peloponnesian War was the Sicilian Expedition. Encouraged by Alcibiades, a former student of Socrates, Athens sent a massive fleet to Sicily to conquer Syracuse, only to face a humiliating defeat. The failure of the expedition was a devastating blow to Athenian military prestige and power. The association with Alcibiades, who was seen by many as embodying the hubris leading to Athens’ downfall, tainted Socrates due to his close relationship with the controversial figure.
  • The Oligarchic Coup of the Four Hundred (411 BC): The war’s strain led to a brief overthrow of democracy in Athens, replaced by a short-lived oligarchy known as the rule of the Four Hundred. This period of political upheaval made the Athenians suspicious of anti-democratic sentiments. Socrates’ association with individuals like Critias, who was later a leader of the Thirty Tyrants, and Alcibiades, who had fluctuating political loyalties, further exacerbated suspicions about his political leanings.
  • The Rule of the Thirty Tyrants (404-403 BC): Following Athens’ defeat in the Peloponnesian War, Sparta installed an oligarchic regime known as the Thirty Tyrants in Athens. This regime, noted for its brutality and repressive measures against perceived enemies of the state, included among its leaders Critias, a former student of Socrates. The regime’s actions and Socrates’ perceived association with its members contributed to his reputation as an enemy of democracy.
  • The Restoration of Democracy (403 BC): After the fall of the Thirty Tyrants, Athens restored its democracy. This period saw a strong movement towards reconciliation and the re-establishment of democratic ideals. However, it also involved a reevaluation of those thought to have collaborated with or supported the oligarchic regimes. Socrates’ philosophical activities, which often involved questioning traditional virtues and the democratic status quo, along with his connections to prominent figures of the oligarchic regimes, made him a target for those seeking to protect Athens from perceived internal threats.

These historical contexts surrounding the Peloponnesian War played a crucial role in shaping the perception of Socrates as a figure who, whether fairly or not, was seen as undermining the democratic values of Athens. His trial and subsequent execution can be seen as part of a broader effort by the Athenians to safeguard their city’s democratic principles against the backdrop of war, defeat, and political turmoil.

The Charges Against Socrates
The framing of the charges against Socrates in religious terms, rather than as direct political accusations, can be understood within the context of the amnesty that followed the rule of the Thirty Tyrants in Athens. After the downfall of this oligarchic regime and the restoration of democracy, an amnesty was declared, which essentially meant that no one could be prosecuted for their political actions during the period of the Thirty Tyrants’ rule. This amnesty aimed to heal the political divisions and avoid further civil strife by preventing the new democratic government from seeking retribution against those who collaborated with or were associated with the oligarchic regime.

Given this political backdrop, those who sought to prosecute Socrates for his perceived anti-democratic leanings and his associations with controversial figures such as Critias (a leader of the Thirty Tyrants) and Alcibiades (who had a complicated relationship with both Athenian democracy and oligarchic Sparta) had to find a legal workaround. By framing the charges in religious terms—accusing him of impiety and introducing new divinities—they could circumvent the amnesty’s protections against political prosecutions.

The charge of “corrupting the youth” can be seen as a veiled critique of Socrates’s influence on the younger members of Athenian society, including those who had political power or who might challenge the status quo. The accusers likely viewed Socrates’s philosophical dialogues, which often questioned traditional values and encouraged critical thinking, as a threat to societal norms and the existing political order. By suggesting that he was leading the youth astray, the accusers tapped into broader concerns about the stability and future of the democracy.

Socrates’s defence, as recorded by Plato, emphasises his philosophical stance that he possesses no wisdom to teach and therefore cannot be responsible for corrupting the youth. He argues that his role as a social and moral critic was not to indoctrinate but to encourage young Athenians to think for themselves and examine their lives and beliefs critically. This defence highlights the fundamental disconnect between the philosophical pursuit of truth and the political realities of Athens at the time. Socrates’s insistence on his ignorance (the Socratic paradox) and his commitment to the dialectical method of questioning everything were at odds with the city’s need for stability and cohesion after years of war and political turmoil.

In essence, the charges against Socrates and his subsequent trial and execution reflect the tension between the individual’s pursuit of truth and the collective needs of the polis, particularly in a period marked by political fragility and the recent memory of tyranny.

Socrates Defence
In Plato’s “Apology,” Socrates begins his defence by addressing accusations made against him by those he calls his “older accusers.” These accusers, including the playwright Aristophanes, had been criticising Socrates long before the formal legal charges were brought against him. Socrates suggests that these older accusations have prejudiced the jury against him from their youth. Among these accusations was the claim, popularised by Aristophanes in his comedy “The Clouds,” that Socrates could make the weaker argument defeat the stronger. Additionally, there were rumors that Socrates spent his time discussing speculative topics such as celestial phenomena and the composition of the earth—subjects considered frivolous or impious by some Athenians.

In his defence, Socrates explicitly denies engaging in such speculative inquiries (“Apology” 18a-c). By doing so, Socrates is distancing himself from two distinct groups:

  • The Sophists: Sophists were itinerant teachers and intellectuals in ancient Greece who were known for their ability to argue convincingly on any side of an issue, often using rhetorical skill to make weaker arguments appear stronger. They were criticized by some, including Plato, for their perceived moral relativism and for prioritizing persuasive speech over truth. Socrates’s denial is an attempt to separate himself from the sophists’ reputation for manipulating arguments and undermining traditional moral values.
  • The Presocratic Philosophers: Prior to Socrates, many Greek philosophers (now referred to as “Presocratics”) were primarily concerned with cosmology, metaphysics, and natural philosophy. They sought to understand the universe’s fundamental nature, including its origins, the composition of matter, and the causes of natural phenomena. By stating that he does not engage in discussions about “things in the sky and below the earth,” Socrates is distancing himself from the Presocratics’ speculative and theoretical inquiries into the natural world.

Socrates’s defence highlights a critical aspect of his philosophical approach: his focus on ethical and existential questions rather than speculative natural philosophy or the rhetorical techniques associated with the sophists. Socrates is portrayed as concerned primarily with how one should live, the nature of virtue, and the pursuit of knowledge through dialectical reasoning. This focus on ethics and epistemology, along with his method of engaging interlocutors in critical dialogue (the Socratic method), is what distinguishes Socrates within the broader landscape of ancient Greek philosophy.

By denying involvement in the speculative pursuits attributed to him by his accusers, Socrates is not just defending himself against specific charges; he is also clarifying the nature of his philosophical project. His emphasis is on practical wisdom, moral inquiry, and the improvement of the soul, rather than on the abstract speculation or rhetorical skill that his accusers associate with him. This distinction is central to understanding Socrates’s legacy and his place in the history of Western philosophy.

The Trial Result and Death
Socrates was found guilty at his trial in 399 BC. By then, he was 70 years of age. The charges against him were impiety (not believing in the gods of the city) and corrupting the youth of Athens. Following the guilty verdict, the jury was asked to determine his punishment. Athenian legal practice allowed the convicted person to propose an alternative punishment to the one suggested by the accusers. Socrates humorously suggested that he should be rewarded with free meals for life in the Prytaneum (a public dining hall in Athens) for his services to the state, akin to the treatment of Olympic champions, highlighting his belief that he had done more good than harm to the city. This proposal was likely seen as mocking by his accusers and the jury.

Ultimately, Socrates’ suggestion was rejected, and the jury had to choose between the death penalty proposed by his accusers and the punishment Socrates had suggested. They chose the death penalty. Socrates was sentenced to die by drinking a mixture containing poison hemlock.

In the days leading up to his execution, Socrates had an opportunity to escape from prison, as his friends arranged for his departure. However, he chose to remain, arguing that escaping would imply a breach of his social contract with the state of Athens, despite its unjust decision. He maintained that one should never do wrong in return for wrong. His death, by consuming hemlock in the presence of his friends, was recounted in Plato’s “Phaedo” (see below) highlighting his philosophical discussions on the soul and the afterlife up until his final moments.


Image: “La mort de Socrate de J. de Saint-Quentin (École nat. sup. des Beaux-Arts, Paris)” by dalbera is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Plato’s Phaedo
Plato’s “Phaedo” is one of the most significant and poignant dialogues of Plato, centering on the last hours before Socrates’s execution. It is named after Phaedo of Elis, a young man who was present during Socrates’s final day and serves as the narrator of the dialogue to Echecrates, a fellow philosopher. The dialogue takes place in Socrates’s prison cell, where he is surrounded by his friends and followers on the day of his execution.

“Phaedo” is primarily concerned with the immortality of the soul and provides a profound philosophical argument on the subject. Socrates, even in the face of death, engages in a final philosophical discourse, offering arguments for the soul’s immortality and discussing the philosopher’s attitude toward death. He posits that true philosophers practice dying all their lives, viewing death as the ultimate release of the soul from the body, where it can attain true wisdom and purity.

The dialogue also explores the theory of Forms, a cornerstone of Platonic philosophy, suggesting that true knowledge comes from understanding the Forms, which are perfect and immutable, unlike their physical representations. The dialogue ends with Socrates’s calm and dignified acceptance of death, as he drinks the hemlock and bids farewell to his friends, leaving a lasting legacy of his philosophical inquiry and courage in the face of mortality.

“Phaedo” is not only a moving account of Socrates’s final moments but also a key text for understanding Plato’s views on the soul, the afterlife, and the philosophical life. It continues to be a central work in the study of ancient philosophy and the Platonic tradition.

Crito’s Offer
Crito[13] was a wealthy Athenian, known to us primarily through Plato’s dialogues, and who was a close friend and follower of the philosopher Socrates. He is most notably featured in Plato’s “Crito,” a dialogue that takes place in Socrates’ prison cell, where Crito visits Socrates to persuade him to escape from prison and avoid his impending execution.

In this dialogue, Crito presents arguments to Socrates about why he should flee Athens to save his life. Crito’s concerns include the preservation of Socrates’ life, the well-being of Socrates’ children, and the reputation of Socrates and his friends. He argues that by staying and accepting his death, Socrates would be abandoning his sons and would seem to be a victim of his enemies’ injustice. Moreover, Crito and other friends of Socrates are willing to finance his escape and ensure his safety in exile. However, Socrates refuses Crito’s offer, emphasising his moral and ethical principles. He argues that escaping would violate his principles of justice and the social contract he believes to exist between himself and the city of Athens. For Socrates, obeying the laws of the state, even if they result in an unjust verdict, is paramount to maintaining justice and order in society. The dialogue ends with Socrates convincing Crito of the moral correctness of his decision to stay and face his sentence.

Through the character of Crito, Plato explores themes of justice, loyalty, friendship, and the individual’s relationship to society’s laws. Crito’s loyalty and concern for Socrates highlight the depth of friendship and respect among Socrates’ followers, while also serving as a foil to Socrates’ philosophical reasoning about duty, justice, and the importance of living a virtuous life.

Socrates’ Ethical Convictions and Acknowledgment of Ignorance
It is important to highlight that Socrates doesn’t explicitly state he knows nothing. Instead, he acknowledges his own ignorance, suggesting that his knowledge, to the extent it exists, holds little value.

Socrates harbours several deeply held beliefs regarding the ethical life, yet he often refrains from defining precisely why these beliefs are justified.

For example, he maintains the principle that one should never inflict harm on others, regardless of whether they are friends or foes. However, particularly in the first book of Plato’s “Republic,” he stops short of providing a comprehensive explanation of justice that would substantiate this principle. Socrates’ commitment to continuous questioning and examination has allowed him to develop and refine his ethical positions. As a result, he is able to sustain specific ideas about justice while simultaneously acknowledging his incomplete understanding of its full essence. This approach underscores a unique aspect of Socratic philosophy: the ability to hold firm ethical convictions alongside a recognition of one’s own intellectual limitations.

Legacy and Conclusion
Socrates’s legacy is enshrined in the Platonic dialogues and the works of Xenophon, through which his dialectical method of inquiry laid the groundwork for the development of Western philosophy. His life and death raise profound questions about the nature of wisdom, the good life, the role of the state, and the importance of critical thinking, which continue to influence philosophical thought to this day.

  • Foundational Influence on Ethics and Morality: Socrates’s emphasis on ethics, virtue, and moral introspection set the stage for subsequent philosophical explorations of what constitutes a virtuous life. His questioning of conventional wisdom and societal norms encouraged a shift from understanding ethics in terms of external obligations to internal moral integrity and the pursuit of personal virtue.
  • The Socratic Method: Socrates’s dialectical method of inquiry, characterized by asking probing questions to expose contradictions and stimulate critical thinking, remains a cornerstone of educational philosophy and pedagogy. It has been adopted in various fields, including law, medicine, and psychotherapy, as a means of exploring complex problems and encouraging deep understanding.
  • Influence on Political Philosophy: Socrates’s reflections on justice, law, and the role of the individual within the state have had a profound impact on political philosophy. His trial and execution, as depicted in Plato’s dialogues, serve as a powerful examination of the tension between individual conscience and state authority, inspiring future political thinkers from Plato himself to contemporary philosophers.
  • Development of the Concept of the Philosophical Life: Socrates is often credited with the conception of philosophy as a way of life, not merely an academic discipline. His dedication to the examination of life, insistence on the importance of self-knowledge, and his maxim that “the unexamined life is not worth living” have inspired centuries of philosophers, scholars, and ordinary individuals to pursue wisdom and self-reflection.
  • Impact on Epistemology: Socrates’s explorations of knowledge and belief, particularly his sceptical approach to claiming knowledge and his proposal that true wisdom lies in recognising one’s own ignorance, laid the groundwork for the field of epistemology. His approach encourages an ongoing inquiry into the nature and limits of human understanding.
  • Legacy in Cultural and Artistic Representations: Beyond philosophy, Socrates has occupied a significant place in literature, art, and popular culture, symbolising the pursuit of truth in the face of adversity. His life and teachings have been depicted in works ranging from classical Greek dramas to modern films, paintings, and novels, reflecting his enduring relevance as a figure of intellectual and moral integrity.
  • Influence on Subsequent Philosophical Movements: Socrates’s influence can be traced through the Hellenistic philosophies of Stoicism and Epicureanism, both of which sought to answer Socratic questions about how to live, and extends to the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and beyond. His emphasis on rational discourse and ethical inquiry can be seen in the works of philosophers as diverse as Descartes, Kant, and Nietzsche, among others.

Socrates’s legacy, a testament to the power of inquiry and ethical examination, continues to resonate through the ages. This exploration has traversed the Socratic method, ethical teachings, and the intricate challenge of deciphering Socrates’s authentic voice. Via ancient texts and modern scholarship, we have seen how Socrates’s pursuit of wisdom and virtue laid the foundational stones for Western philosophy. His life, a blend of intellectual rigour and moral integrity, not only shaped the philosophical discourse of his time but also offers timeless insights into the nature of knowledge, ethics, and the importance of living a reflective life. Engaging with Socrates’s legacy, we find not only historical curiosity but a living dialogue that challenges us to examine our own lives with the same courage and depth.


Image: The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787). Socrates was visited by friends in his last night at prison. His discussion with them gave rise to Plato’s Crito and Phaedo.
Citation: Socrates. (2024, March 16). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates

A Recap in Simple Terms
Imagine a wise old man in ancient Greece, named Socrates, who loved asking questions more than anything else. He believed that by asking lots of questions, we could discover what’s really true and learn how to be good people. He didn’t write books; instead, he spent his days talking with people in the market, asking them about what they thought was right or wrong, true or false.

Socrates thought that nobody really does bad things on purpose; instead, when people do something wrong, it’s because they don’t really understand what’s right. He said that to be truly happy, we need to know ourselves and understand what makes us good.

Socrates also believed in something really special—that our souls, the part of us that thinks and feels, live on even after our bodies stop working. He said that living a good and honest life was the most important thing, more important than being rich or powerful.

Even when he was in trouble for his ideas, Socrates didn’t stop asking questions. He showed everyone that being true to what you believe and seeking the truth is the bravest way to live. He’s remembered as one of the greatest teachers ever, not because he had all the answers, but because he showed us that asking the right questions can help us find our way. Even when he was in trouble for his ideas, Socrates didn’t stop asking questions.

He showed everyone that being true to what you believe and seeking the truth is the bravest way to live. He’s remembered as one of the greatest teachers ever, not because he had all the answers, but because he showed us that asking the right questions can help us find our way.

Selected Socratic Quotations


Image: Socrates in an ancient Greek market square, engaging with his audience on the topic of knowledge.
Drawn by DALL-E, a subset of ChatGPT, March 2024.

  • The greatest way to live with honour in this world is to be what we pretend to be.
  • What is done justly is suffered justly: if the act is just, the effect is just; if to punish is just, to be punished is just, and therefore fair, and therefore beneficent; and the benefit is that the soul is improved.
  • He who is not contented with what he has, would not be contented with what he would like to have.
  • Death may be the greatest of all human blessings.
  • True wisdom comes to each of us when we realise how little we understand about life, ourselves, and the world around us.
  • Not life, but good life, is to be chiefly valued.
  • He is richest who is content with the least, for content is the wealth of nature.
  • I know that I am intelligent, because I know that I know nothing.
  • To know, is to know that you know nothing. That is the meaning of true knowledge.
  • By all means, marry. If you get a good wife, you’ll become happy; if you get a bad one, you’ll become a philosopher.
  • I am the wisest man alive, for I know one thing, and that is that I know nothing.
  • The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
  • It would be better for me… that multitudes of men should disagree with me rather than that I, being one, should be out of harmony with myself.
  • Anyone who holds a true opinion without understanding is like a blind man on the right road.

Bibliography

Web Resources:

Books:

The following list should provide a broad spectrum of perspectives on Socrates, including his philosophical contributions, biographical insights, and interpretations of his dialogues.

CAUTION: This paper is compiled from the sources stated but has not been externally reviewed. Parts of this paper include information provided via artificial intelligence which, although checked by the author, is not always accurate or reliable. Neither we nor any third parties provide any warranty or guarantee as to the accuracy, timeliness, performance, completeness or suitability of the information and materials covered in this paper for any particular purpose. Such information and materials may contain inaccuracies or errors and we expressly exclude liability for any such inaccuracies or errors to the fullest extent permitted by law. Your use of any information or materials on this website is entirely at your own risk, for which we shall not be liable. It shall be your own responsibility to ensure that any products, services or information available through this paper meet your specific requirements and you should neither take action nor exercise inaction without taking appropriate professional advice. The hyperlinks were current at the date of publication.

End Notes and Explanations

  1. Source: Compiled from my research using information available at the sources stated throughout the text, together with information provided by machine-generated artificial intelligence at: bing.com [chat] and https://chat.openai.com. Text used includes that on Wikipedia websites is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0; additional terms may apply. By using those websites, I have agreed to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organisation. ↑
  2. Explanation: Plato (c. 428–348 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. He founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first institutions of higher learning in the Western world. Plato is best known for his dialogues, in which he explored ethics, politics, knowledge, and metaphysics, often featuring Socrates as a central character. His work laid the foundations for Western philosophy and science. ↑
  3. Explanation: Xenophon (c. 430–354 BC) was an ancient Greek historian, philosopher, and soldier. A contemporary of Plato, he is known for his writings on the history of his times, the sayings of Socrates, and on life in ancient Greece. Xenophon’s works include “Anabasis,” a narrative of his experiences with the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries, and “Memorabilia,” which recounts his personal interactions with Socrates. ↑
  4. Explanation: Aristophanes (c. 446–386 BC) was an ancient Greek playwright, considered one of the greatest representatives of comedic drama in classical Athens. His plays are known for their critical and satirical commentary on Athenian politics and society, including the Peloponnesian War and the intellectual circles of his time. Among his most famous works are “The Clouds,” which satirizes Socrates and the Sophists, and “Lysistrata,” a comedic tale of women’s extraordinary mission to end the Peloponnesian War by withholding sexual privileges from their husbands. ↑
  5. Source: https://iep.utm.edu/socrates/ ↑
  6. Source: Largely derived from https://iep.utm.edu/socrates/#SSH1ai ↑
  7. Explanation: The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) was a protracted conflict between the city-states of Athens and Sparta and their respective allies, marking a significant period in ancient Greek history. The war is divided into three main phases: the Archidamian War, the Sicilian Expedition, and the Ionian or Decelean War, with the Peace of Nicias serving as an interlude rather than a distinct phase of warfare.

    Archidamian War (431–421 BC): Named after the Spartan king Archidamus II, this phase saw traditional hoplite battles along with long-term sieges. It highlighted the contrasting military strengths of Athens, with its powerful navy and wealth, against Sparta’s superior land forces.

    Peace of Nicias (421–415 BC): A temporary truce that failed to bring lasting peace, as hostilities and strategic maneuvers continued unabated.

    Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BC): Initiated by Athens in an attempt to gain control of Sicily, this ambitious but disastrous campaign significantly weakened Athenian resources and morale.

    Ionian or Decelean War (413–404 BC): Sparta, with Persian financial support, built a fleet to challenge Athenian naval dominance, eventually besieging Athens and cutting off its grain supply.

    The war concluded with the surrender of Athens, leading to the temporary overthrow of its democracy and the imposition of a harsh peace treaty. The conflict resulted in significant loss of life, economic hardship, and marked the end of the golden age of Athens. The Peloponnesian War had profound implications for the Greek world, weakening the major Greek city-states and paving the way for the rise of Macedonian power under Philip II and his son, Alexander the Great. ↑

  8. Explanation: The agora was a central public space in ancient Greek city-states, serving as a hub for commerce, social interaction, political meetings, and judicial activities. Originating in the early days of Greek civilization, the agora was an essential part of city life, embodying the communal and democratic ethos of Greek society. It was typically located in the heart of the city and was surrounded by government buildings, temples, and shops. Citizens gathered in the agora for a variety of purposes, including trading goods, discussing politics, attending public speeches and trials, and participating in religious ceremonies. The agora played a crucial role in the development of Greek democracy, particularly in Athens, where it was the focal point of civic life and the birthplace of many ideas that shaped Western philosophy, political theory, and practice. ↑
  9. Explanation: In the context of Plato’s dialogues, Apollodorus is a character who often appears as a devoted follower of Socrates. He is notably featured in Plato’s “Symposium,” where he recounts to an unnamed companion the events and discussions that took place at the banquet about love, as told to him by Aristodemus. Apollodorus is portrayed as a reliable source of information about Socrates, emphasising his admiration and closeness to the philosopher. His role is primarily that of a narrator or transmitter of Socratic teachings to others, reflecting his dedication to preserving and sharing Socrates’ legacy. ↑
  10. Explanation: Aristodemus is a minor character in Plato’s “Symposium,” known for his attendance at the banquet in honor of Agathon’s victory in a dramatic competition. He goes to the banquet uninvited, following Socrates, and serves as a primary eyewitness to the speeches on love, including those given by Socrates, Alcibiades, and others. In the dialogue, Aristodemus’ account of the symposium is relayed to others by Apollodorus, making him an indirect source of the dialogue’s content. Aristodemus is depicted as a humble admirer of Socrates, eager to be in his company and learn from him, although he himself does not contribute to the discussions on love. ↑
  11. Explanation: The Form of the Beautiful, also known as the Idea or Form of Beauty, is a concept in Plato’s philosophy representing the ultimate, perfect embodiment of beauty itself, transcending the physical world. According to Plato, particularly as discussed in dialogues like the “Symposium,” Forms are eternal, immutable, and non-physical essences that exist beyond our sensory experience. The Form of the Beautiful is the absolute and pure standard by which all things that we perceive as beautiful are judged to be so. It is not beauty as we see or experience in objects, art, or individuals, but rather the essence of beauty itself, to which all beautiful things participate or share in some way. For Plato, the pursuit of this Form, through philosophical inquiry and the ascent of the soul, leads to true knowledge and the highest form of love. ↑
  12. Explanation: The Sophists were a group of itinerant teachers and intellectuals in ancient Greece (5th century BC), known for their skill in teaching rhetoric, debate, and virtue for a fee. They were experts in using persuasive language and argumentation, often emphasising the relative and subjective nature of knowledge and morality. Sophists argued that truth could vary depending on perspective and context, leading to the belief that what is considered “right” or “true” could be shaped through skillful argumentation. This perspective put them at odds with philosophers like Socrates and Plato, who sought absolute truths, particularly in ethics and knowledge. The Sophists played a significant role in the development of Western thought, especially in rhetoric and the philosophy of language. ↑
  13. Information: According to the Phaedo, the last words uttered by Socrates were:“Crito, we owe a rooster to Asclepius. Don’t forget to pay the debt.” Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates#cite_note-56 ↑

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Martin Pollins

Martin Pollins is a Chartered Accountant and MBA with wide experience in corporate finance and business management. He has served on the boards of several companies, including those listed on the London Stock Exchange, AIM and OFEX. He is the Chairman and Founder of OneSmartPlace and was a Council member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales from 1988 to 1996. He was managing partner of PRB Martin Pollins, based in Sussex, the first Accountancy firm to advertise on British television. He went on to create and launch the CharterGroup Partnership (the UK’s first Accountancy network) and then LawGroup UK (at the time, one of the largest networks of lawyers in the UK). In recent years, he helped to raise several £millions to fund British films such as The Da Vinci Code, Bridge of San Luis Rey, Head in the Clouds and Merchant of Venice with actors such as Charlize Theron, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, F. Murray Abraham. Kathy Bates, Gabriel Byrne, Geraldine Chaplin, Tom Hanks, Ian McKellen, Audrey Tautou, Penélope Cruz, Steven Berkoff, Lynn Collins, Jeremy Irons, Joseph Fiennes and many more. He has written several business publications (see https://onesmartplace.com/resources/)

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